tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-25790556595463689852024-03-19T04:39:16.811-07:00Farzana PanhwarFarzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.comBlogger49125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-59628987286890137912007-08-23T02:44:00.000-07:002007-08-23T02:47:06.502-07:00THE VARIOUS WAYS AND MEANS OF USING TRAINED VOLUNTEER SERVICE TO BOOST THE ECONOMY AND CONTROL CULTURAL DIVERSITY TO BRING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT INThe various ways and means of using trained volunteer service to boost the economy and control cultural diversity to bring sustainable development in the universe. A Pakistan view.<br /><br />Objective.<br /><br />To provide better and latest knowledge of technologies to the volunteers, so their role in the communities should enhanced and utilise to control un-justice, poverty, cultural diversity and globalization in the universe.<br /><br />Abstract.<br /><br />In the year 2000 the Pakistan total population was 137.51 million. The Pakistan is based on agricultural economy. Its 97% population line in the rural areas. Their activities are agriculture, horticulture, fishes forestry and its related field. In 1981 Pakistan literacy rate is 26.2, while urban area has 53.3% and rural area 7.3%<br /><br />Since the illiteracy rate is very high in the rural areas, which paralyse the government for its development activities. But volunteers and abilities if they are trained with the latest knowledge, they can play a great role to provide sustainable development and bring peace in the nature.<br /><br />Introduction.<br /><br />In the year 2000 in Pakistan the total population was 137.510 million.<br /><br />Sindh is divided into 5 division, 21 districts, 72 - subdivision, 88 Tehsil, 5,875 villages, one metropolitan 3-corporate municipals, 35 commercial municipal, 116 committee towns, 8 cantonment towns and 162 total urban areas.<br /><br />Problems of rural areas.<br /><br />n High fertility rate, high mortality rate with low expectation of life at birth, nutritional deficiencies, with fragile health.<br />n Rudimentary education with high degree of illiteracy.<br />n Extensive prevalence of child labour.<br />n Male domination in which inferior women’s status.<br />n Lacking of middle class people.<br />n Low quality of seeds available for field crops.<br />n Lacking of middle class people.<br />n Low quality of seeds available for field crops including vegetables, fruits, pulses and oil seeds.<br />n Due to traditional methods used for insemination brings poor quality of live stock production.<br />n Un-scientific way of breeding used in fisheries result low out-put.<br />n Due to most of land destroyed by salinity, water logging, marshes, riverain forest and other forest started destruction rather than development in this sector.<br /><br /><br />The volunteer should be trained in the following environmental impact assessment programme:<br /><br /><br />Part A Environmental ‘characteristics’ and ‘conditions’ (vertically in the matrix)<br /><br />Part B Project actions (horizontally in the matrix)<br />A<br />a physical and chemical characteristics<br />A<br />modificcation of regime.<br />1.<br />earth<br />a)<br />Exotic flora or fauna introduction.<br />a)<br />Mineral resources.<br />b)<br />Biological controls.<br />b)<br />Construction material.<br />c)<br />Modification of habitat.<br />c)<br />Soils.<br />d)<br />Alteration of ground cover.<br />d)<br />Land form.<br />e)<br />Alteration of ground-water hydrology.<br />e)<br />Force field and background radiation.<br />f)<br />Alternation of drainage.<br />f)<br />Unique physical features.<br />g)<br />River control and flow modification.<br />2.<br />water<br />h)<br />Canalisation.<br />a)<br />Surface.<br />i)<br />Irrigation.<br />b)<br />Ocean.<br />j)<br />Weather modification.<br />c)<br />Underground.<br />k)<br />Burning.<br />d)<br />Quality.<br />l)<br />Surface or paving.<br />e)<br />Temperature.<br />m)<br />Noise and vibration.<br />f)<br />Recharge.<br />B<br />land transformation and construction<br />g)<br />Snow, ice and permafrost.<br />a)<br />Urbanisation.<br />3.<br />atmosphere.<br />b)<br />Industrial sites and buildings.<br />a)<br />Quality (gases, particles).<br />c)<br />Airports.<br />b)<br />Climate (micro macro).<br />d)<br />Highways and bridges.<br />c)<br />Temperature.<br />e)<br />Roads and trails.<br />4.<br />processes.<br />f)<br />Railroads.<br />a)<br />Floods.<br />g)<br />Cables and lifts.<br />b)<br />Erosion.<br />h)<br />Transmission lines, pipelines and corridors.<br />c)<br />Deposition (sedimentation, precipitation).<br />i)<br />Barriers including fencing.<br />d)<br />Solution.<br />j)<br />Channel dredging and straightening.<br />e)<br />Sorption (ion exchange, complexing).<br />k)<br />Channel revetments.<br />f)<br />Compaction and setting.<br />l)<br />Canals.<br />g)<br />Stability (slides, slumps).<br />m)<br />Dams and impoundments.<br />h)<br />Stress-strain (earthquake).<br />n)<br />Piers, seawalls, marinas and sea terminals.<br />i)<br />Air movements.<br />o)<br />Offshore structures.<br />B<br />biological conditions<br />p)<br />Recreational structures.<br />1.<br />flora<br />q)<br />Blasting and drilling.<br />a)<br />Trees.<br />r)<br />Cut and fill.<br />b)<br />Shrubs.<br />s)<br />Tunnels and underground structures.<br />c)<br />Grass.<br />C<br />resource extraction<br />d)<br />Crops.<br />a)<br />Blasting and drilling.<br />e)<br />Microflora.<br />b)<br />Surface excavation.<br />f)<br />Aquatic plants.<br />c)<br />Subsurface excavation and retoring.<br />g)<br />Endangered species.<br />d)<br />Well drilling and fluid removal.<br />h)<br />Barriers.<br />e)<br />Dredging.<br />i)<br />Corridors.<br />f)<br />Clear cutting and other lumbering.<br />2.<br />FAUNA.<br />g)<br />Commercial fishing and hunting.<br />a)<br />Birds.<br />D<br />processing.<br />b)<br />Land animals including reptiles.<br />a)<br />Farming.<br />c)<br />Fish and shellfish.<br />b)<br />Ranching and grazing.<br />d)<br />Benthic organisms.<br />c)<br />Feed lots.<br />e)<br />Insects.<br />d)<br />Dairying.<br />f)<br />Microfauna.<br />e)<br />Energy generation.<br />g)<br />Endangered species.<br />f)<br />Mineral processing.<br />h)<br />Barriers.<br />g)<br />Microfauna.<br />i)<br />Corridors.<br />h)<br />Chemical industry.<br />C<br />cultural factors<br />i)<br />Textile industry.<br />1.<br />land use.<br />j)<br />Automobile and aircraft.<br />a)<br />Wilderness and open spaces.<br />k)<br />Oil refining.<br />b)<br />Wetlands.<br />l)<br />Food.<br />c)<br />Forestry.<br />m)<br />Lumbering.<br />d)<br />Grazing.<br />n)<br />Pulp and paper.<br />e)<br />Agriculture.<br />o)<br />Product storage.<br />f)<br />Residential.<br />E<br />land alteration<br />g)<br />Commercial.<br />a)<br />Erosion control and terracing.<br />h)<br />Industrial.<br />b)<br />Mine scaling and waste control.<br />i)<br />Mining and quarrying.<br />c)<br />Strip mining rehabilitation.<br />2.<br />Recreation.<br />d)<br />Landscaping.<br />a)<br />Hunting.<br />e)<br />Harbour dredging.<br />b)<br />Fishing.<br />f)<br />Marsh fill and drainage.<br />c)<br />Boating.<br />F<br />resource renewal.<br />d)<br />Swimming.<br />a)<br />Reforestation.<br />e)<br />Camping and Hiking.<br />b)<br />Wildlife stocking and management.<br />f)<br />Picnicking.<br />c)<br />Ground water recharge.<br />g)<br />Resorts.<br />d)<br />Fertilisation application.<br />3.<br />aesthetics and human interest.<br />e)<br />Waste recycling.<br />a)<br />Seenic views and vistas.<br />G<br />changes in traffic.<br />b)<br />Wilderness qualities.<br />a)<br />Railway.<br />c)<br />Open space qualities.<br />b)<br />Automobile.<br />d)<br />Landscape design.<br />c)<br />Trucking.<br />e)<br />Unique physical features.<br />d)<br />Shipping.<br />f)<br />Parks and reserves.<br />e)<br />Aircraft.<br />g)<br />Monuments.<br />f)<br />River and canal traffic.<br />h)<br />Rare and unique species or ecosystem.<br />g)<br />Pleasure boating.<br />i)<br />Historical or archaeological sites and objects.<br />h)<br />Trails.<br />j)<br />Presence of misfits.<br />i)<br />Cables and lifts.<br />4.<br />cultural status.<br />j)<br />Communication.<br />a)<br />Cultural patterns (life style).<br />k)<br />Pipeline.<br />b)<br />Health and safety.<br />H<br />waste emplacement and treatment<br />c)<br />Employment.<br />a)<br />Ocean dumping.<br />d)<br />Population density.<br />b)<br />Landfill.<br />5.<br />man-made facilities and activities.<br />c)<br />Emplacement of tailing, spoil and overburden.<br />a)<br />Structures.<br />d)<br />Underground storage.<br />b)<br />Transportation network (movement, access).<br />e)<br />Junk disposal.<br />c)<br />Utility networks.<br />f)<br />Oil well flooding.<br />d)<br />Waste disposal.<br />g)<br />Deep well emplacement.<br />e)<br />Barriers.<br />h)<br />Cooling water discharge.<br />f)<br />Corridors.<br />i)<br />Municipal waste discharge including spray irrigation.<br />D<br />ecologicl relationships such as:<br />j)<br />Liquid effluent discharge.<br />a)<br />Salinization of water resources.<br />k)<br />Stabilisation and oxidation ponds.<br />b)<br />Eutrophication.<br />l)<br />Septic tanks, commercial and domestic.<br />c)<br />Disease-insect vectors.<br />m)<br />Stack and exhaust emission.<br />d)<br />Food chains.<br />n)<br />Spent lubricants.<br />e)<br />Salinization of surficial material.<br />I<br />chemical treatment.<br />f)<br />Brush encroachment.<br />a)<br />Fertilisation.<br />g)<br />Other.<br />b)<br />Chemical de-icing of highways, etc.<br /><br />OTHERS<br />c)<br />Chemical stabilisation of soil.<br /><br /><br />d)<br />Weed control.<br /><br /><br />e)<br />Insect control (pesticides).<br /><br /><br />J<br />accidents.<br /><br /><br />a)<br />Explosions.<br /><br /><br />b)<br />Spills and leaks.<br /><br /><br />c)<br />Operational failure.<br /><br /><br /><br />OTHERS.<br /><br /><br /> Volunteers can boost food industry in the following ways:<br /><br />n Wheat flour and other fine products, also bran used for animal feed.<br /><br />n Make flour enriched with vitamin and B complex developed infant and child feed.<br /><br />n Rice used for milling/husking.<br /><br />n Maize used to develop starch and related products.<br /><br />n Sugar can used for sugar and Gur extraction, Alcohol and molasses, cattle feed, paper and chipboard development.<br /><br />n Oil-seeds to extract cooking oil, oil-cake used as animal feed and soap making.<br /><br />n Fruit and vegetables used for fresh consumption, juice and syrup making, jam, jelly, marmalade, can fruit and vegetable and pickles making also preserved and dried fruit and vegetables used for long run.<br /><br />n Meat-used for processing, packaging and frozen meat used for long run.<br /><br />n Milk - pasteurised/packet milk, extraction of cream, butter, cheese, yoghurt, lasi making.<br /><br />n Fish-Fish preservation, drying, freezing and canning process:<br /><br />¨ Fish oil for food products, medicine, scape, paints, varnishes, oil-cloth.<br />¨ Fish meal for feeding livestock.<br />¨ Fish meal for fertilisation making.<br />¨ Fish protein concentrates for human consumption.<br />¨ Fish meal for poultry.<br /><br />Non-food industry.<br /><br />n Fibre - cotton used for textile industry, also cotton seeds are used for preparation of cooking oil and cotton-oil-cake used for animal feed.<br />n Jute is used for bag, sacks and containers making.<br />n Animal hides and skins are used in leather industry, foot-ware, bags and suitcases.<br />n Forest products are used in:<br /><br />¨ Swan log, plywood, etc.<br />¨ Paper, paperboard, plywood.<br />¨ Wood furniture.<br />¨ Charcoal and firewood.<br />¨ Resins, gum, lacks, oil.<br />¨ Match industry packaging material, cork, etc.<br /><br />Income generation activities.<br /><br />The volunteers can raise rapidly the output and income by using above technologies, improved cottage industries, latest farming methods, also helping in improving basic health, clean drinking water, education. This way volunteers can boost, social, moral and economic conditions of the country.<br /><br />Ecology.<br /><br />Professional volunteers helps the people to understand the pre-eminently social character of human ecological relations, cultural ecology and the relationship between human beings and their environment in the nature.<br /><br />Volunteer helps to understand ecological context, pollutant pathways, changes in the environment, its effects, monitoring system, its costs and control methods, and international aspects.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Farm sectors.<br /><br />Volunteers helps the farmer for providing new and better methods of agricultural productivity, having improve the nutritional standards, which earn more foreign exchange, also to develop other sectors of industries, which will boost the country economy.<br /><br />Public sector, development in the fields of agriculture, industries, education, science and technology, health and nutrition, rural development, culture, sport, tourism manpower and employment, women development, population-welfare, social welfare, research and planning, environment poverty alleviation, physical planning and housing, transport and communication, fisheries and forestry.<br /><br />Volunteers are trained to understand the functions of some information services and find out the way to minimising difficulties of information uses.<br /><br />Features of the World of Information<br />Users’ Difficulties<br />Information Service/System Capability<br />Generator and user4s of information are usually located a distance apart.<br />Awareness of information generated difficult.<br />Current awareness services, extension services, publications and publicity.<br />Comulation of information into vast quantities.<br />Overabundance need for selection.<br />Indexing, classification and storage systems, reference services.<br />Accelerated growth of Information. Increasing rate of obsolescence.<br />Obtaining information quickly to specific problem area.<br />Reviews, state of the art and trend reports, digests, information analysis and evaluation.<br />Interdisciplinary nature of information scatter.<br />Can specialise only in restricted subject field.<br />Indexing techniques to inter-link subjects, Information analysis and enquiry service.<br />Multiplicity of languages.<br />Can be familiar with only one or a few languages.<br />Translation Service.<br />Wide range of standards and modes of presentation of ideas.<br />Only some standards and patterns are convenient to some users.<br />Selection and presentation or repackaging according to user’s needs.<br />Wide variation in quality and reliability.<br />Difficulties and inadequacy of time for evaluating and selecting.<br />Information and Data analysis and evaluation.<br />Delays in final stage of Document provision.<br />Difficulty in obtaining copies of required Document.<br />Obtaining copies of documents, reprographic facilities.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Volunteers are trained and capable for comparison of characteristics of information services in a network. As describe under:<br /><br />Aspect<br />University Information Service<br />Industry Information Service<br />Govt. Information Service<br />Location.<br />Usually located in one geographic location. Physically people and facilities are in one place.<br />If decentralised can have several divisions in different locations.<br />Can be regional.<br />Orientation.<br />Education (Conserve, transmit, analyse disseminate) advance learning, emphasis on education, with broad back ground so that individual is useful to University and society.<br />Profit, Training Programmes available to develop skills to make individual more useful to organisation. Such programmes may be restricted.<br />Service.<br />Personnel.<br />Students (Pre and Post Doctoral) education, researches, Free contact with people who are available for consultation.<br />No students, researchers, production technologists, marketing and other experts.<br />No. students Researchers, Industry, farmers.<br />Facilities.<br />Experts, large libraries, Computing Centres.<br />Narrower group of experts more restricted libraries.<br />Some experts. Large libraries.<br />Products.<br />Available to world.<br />Usually restricted to internal use but can include patients and publications written for profit motives.<br />Same.<br />At one time, there would have been difference in source of findings. This is hard to generalise now. government funding support University and industry, industrial funding supports industry and government.Funding.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Flexibility.<br />Most.<br />Some<br />Some<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Conclusion.<br /><br />The trained volunteers with latest knowledge should be engaged in all walks of life, they not only provide employed by people in various development activities but they also helps the nation to provide international net work and bring employment opportunities, development activities boost export, import and bring peace in the world.<br /><br />Methodology of workshop.<br /><br />n Presentation by the help of mass-media and charts.<br />n Note down the related input from the audience.<br />n Try to locate hurdle, back-logs, and problems.<br />n Establish a future plan and strategies, after discussion of above points.Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-69609636564554482007-08-23T02:43:00.000-07:002007-08-23T02:44:44.457-07:00The USE OF trained volunteer services, to boost the economy, to control cultural diversity and bring sustainable development .(A Pakistan view.)The USE OF trained volunteer services, to boost the economy, to control cultural diversity and bring sustainable development .(A Pakistan view.)<br /><br />Objective.<br /><br />To provide better and latest knowledge of technologies to the volunteers, so their role in the communities should enhanced and utilise to control un-justice, poverty, cultural diversity and globalization in the universe.<br /><br />Abstract.<br />Trained volunteers with the latest knowledge, can play a great role in sustainable development and bring peace in the nature.<br /><br /><br />The volunteer should be trained in the following environmental impact assessment programme(Chart)a physical and chemical characteristics . land transformation and construction. biological conditions resource extraction processing. cultural factors. land alteration resource .renewal changes in traffic. waste emplacement and treatment. ecologicl relationships. and chemical treatment<br /><br /><br /> Volunteers Should be trained in agriculture ,horticulture. food , fruits ,vegetable, fish, forestry fresh and processing industry ,non-food processing industries. improved cottage industries. volunteers can raise rapidly the output and income by using above technologies,<br /><br /><br />Ecology.<br /><br />Professional volunteers helps the people to understand the pre-eminently social character of human ecological relations, cultural ecology and the relationship between human beings and their environment in the nature. context, pollutant pathways, changes in the environment, its effects, monitoring system, its costs and control methods, and international aspects. Volunteers are trained to understand the functions of some information services and find out the way to minimising difficulties of information uses.( Chart)<br /> <br />Trained volunteer services.<br /><br />Volunteers helps the farmer for providing new and better methods of agricultural productivity, Public sector, development in the fields of agriculture, industries, education, science and technology, health and nutrition, rural development, culture, sport, tourism manpower and employment, women development, population-welfare, social welfare, research and planning, environment poverty alleviation, physical planning and housing, transport and communication, fisheries and forestr<br /><br />Conclusion.<br /><br />The trained volunteers with latest knowledge should be engaged in all sectors of life ,they developed international net work and provide employment opportunities and development activities. They helps in boosting up the export, import, bring sustainable development and peace in the world.<br /><br />Methodology of workshop.<br /><br />n Presentation by the help of mass-media and charts.<br />n Note down the related input from the audience.<br />n Try to locate hurdle, back-logs, and problems.<br />n Establish a future plan and strategies, after discussion of above points.<br /><br />NAME. FARZANA PANHWAR.<br />INDUSTRY. THE SINDH RURAL WOMEN’S UP-LIFT GROUP.<br />E-MAIL. <a href="mailto:farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com">farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com</a><br />WEBSITE ADDRESS. GOOGLE SEARCH WRITE.FARZANA PANHWAR.<br />MAILING ADDRESS. 157-C.UNIT.NO.2.LATIFABAD.HYDERABAD.<br />SINDH.PAKISTAN.<br />POSTAL CODE. NIL.<br />COUNTRY. PAKISTAN.Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-81226454567611520362007-08-23T02:40:00.001-07:002007-08-23T02:43:37.888-07:00The use of biotechnology in Sindh . Pakistan to improve Agriculture, its growth and bring Sustainable Development in the country.The use of biotechnology in Sindh . Pakistan to improve Agriculture, its growth and bring Sustainable Development in the country.<br /><br />Abstract.<br /><br />Sindh has Sub-tropical climate , which is extremely suitable for large number of crops, but the farmers of Sindh are illiterate and they raise crops just by copying each other and do not take a risk with their investment. Due to this practice the local market is full with conventional fruits and vegetable raised here namely : mangoes, guava, grapefruit, lemon, lime, sapodilla, cherimoya, dates, lychee, papaya, melons and zizyphus mauritania. The net result is a few varieties of each fruit growing over short season and a glut of one or another fruit crops, throughout the year, and consequently low prices. Due to mono-culture all diseases, infection , and viral attacks are frequent, due to cover large area under same crop, and its control become difficult.<br /><br />The solution lies in diversification of crops, with extension of harvest season and new cultivars, especially evolved by breeding , tissue culture , genetic engineering and bio-technology . These would be extremely beneficial, to bring sustainability locally and globally.<br />Agriculture is the backbone of our economy as well as of our foreign trade. To strengthen the economy of Pakistan, one should first of all take necessary steps to reform the agricultural system of the country. This can only be done by educating the farmers in the latest method of cultivation ,new developments in agricultural inputs and day to day changes in Agricultural Research arena.<br /><br />If we improve the agricultural sector in Sindh, and improve its economic growth and conditions, this alone can bring the sustainability locally and globally.<br /><br />Introduction.<br /><br />Pakistan lies between longitudes of 60°-70°East and latitudes 40°N to 37°N. It is located in the north -western sector of the South Asia. On its north it has boundary with China, and the Central Asian State in west Afghanistan and Iran. In the south -west is the Arabian sea and Persian Gulf. The south and south -east are connected with India. On north -east and east have Jammu and Kashmir States.<br /><br />The population of Pakistan in the year 2003 was 149.1 millions. Projected population in the year 2025 will be 249.9 millions and by the year 2050 the population will be 348.6 millions. It cover an area of 307.375 square miles, while it contains 485 population per square miles (Ref. A)<br /><br />In the year 2000 Pakistan had population 137.8 millions, it increases at the rate of 2.8%. Its projected population by the year 2025 will be 232.9 millions. Its annual renewable freshwater per capita available for the year 1990 was 3,838 cubic meters, while for the year 2025 it will be 1,643 cubic meters, while 74% population from the year 1990-95 having access to safe water. For the same period only 47% population was having adequate sanitation. The crop land available per capita in the year 1990 was 0.17 hectares, which in the year 2025 will be 0.07 hectares. In the year 1992 the CO² emissions per capita was 0.6 metric tonnes (Ref. B)<br /><br />In the year 2003-2004 the actual shortage of river and canal water in Sindh has resulted in drop water table of aquifers from 15 feet to 50 feet. According to Government of Sindh’ s estimates around 1.4 million people and more than 5.6 million livestock heads have been adversely affected due to drought condition, harsh climate, and pollution caused by above conditions.<br /><br />In the year 1998 the extent of water-logging and salinity at the depth of 0-5 feet or 152 cm water table depth in Sindh affected 3796000 hectares, while in Pakistan it was 4942000 hectares but water table at 0-10 feet or 305 cm water table depth for the same year total in Pakistan was 9120000 hectares out of which in Sindh it was 5198000 hectares. (Ref. C)<br /><br />In the year 1998 the extent of saline/ sodic soil total land in Pakistan was 6173500 hectares out of which Sindh had 2109600 hectares. For he same year this saline/sodic land in Pakistan, were 2803800 hectares in which Sindh has 1151000 hectares. (Ref. .D)<br /><br />In the year 1997-98 , the total area under afforestation in Pakistan was 21400 , out of which Sindh have 2800 hectares (Ref. .D)<br /><br />General<br /><br />The Province of Sindh lies between 23°40' to 28° 30'N and 66°40’ to 71°,30 E .The region has sub-tropical climate receiving 100-550 chill units and 3700-4500 heat units. Soil is sandy loam having pH over 7.8.<br /><br />The major crops growing in .Pakistan are rice, sugarcane, wheat ,gram ,maize ,accounting for 35.9% of agricultural value added crops. Area under cotton crop has declined by 10.3%. The minor crops are bajra ,jawar ,sesames ,rape ,mustard , tobacco and pulses like, moong and masoor. The production of wheat in the year 2002-2003 was 1.92 million tonnes. The wheat crop shows poor production due to high temperature stress at the grain formation stage, which shrivel the grain and reduces its weight causes attack of aphids in large wheat growing area. The production of rice for the same year was 4.5 million tonnes, the production of sugarcane was 52.1 million tonnes. Cotton production was 10.2 million bales, it suffered badly due to short supply of canal irrigation water. There is also attack of new and serious pest and diseases including viral diseases The production of maize in 1999-00 was 1565800 tonnes Grain production was 582100 tonnes.<br /><br />The production of potatoes and onion was 1996 thousand tonnes. The growth rate of major crop was 5.8% while the growth rate for minor crops was 0.4%. The live stock sector shows growth rate of 2.9% .Due to effect of draught on availability of fodder and feed, results in to decline animal production. The growth rate of fisheries was 16.6%/ (Ref. E)<br /><br />In the year 1990-00 the total cropping area in Pakistan was 22.76 million hectares, there distribution was.<br />• Food grains- wheat, rice, jowar ,maize ,bajra, and barley about 56% of total cropping area.<br />• Cash crops- sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, sugar beet and jute was 18% of total cropping area.<br />• Pulses- Gram, mung ,mash, masoor, mattar, other pulses was 6% of total cropping area.<br />• Oil-Seeds- Rape-seed, mustard seed, sesamum, ground nut, linseed, castor seed and other oil seed was 3% of the total cropping area.<br />• Vegetables- Covering an area of 1% of the total cropping area.<br />• Condiments- Citrus, mangoes, banana, apple, guava, peach, pear, plum, grapes, pomegranate, dates, almonds, all kinds of melons, strawberries, cherries and sapodilla was 3% of the total cropping area.<br />• Others- Cover about 12% of the total cropping area.<br />• (Ref. Provincial Agricultural Department)<br />•<br />The above statistic show that in future we have a great difficulty to feed the growing population needs. The productivity of land is effected due to urbanisation, green revolution, modernisation, industrialisation and human and natural activities. Which could not be able to provide enough feeding material unless we have to use biotechnology, advance technologies and genetic engineering, which helps in producing feed with better quality, better appearance, enhanced nutritional values, better processing abilities, long shelf life, produce crops having ability of insects, pest and diseases resistance, high yielding, dwarf varieties, more yield per acre, less time for maturation, better colour, better taste and flavour, resistance to stress, drought and salinity.<br /><br /><br />Rice crop (Scientific name : Oryza Sativa.L)<br /><br />In the year 1990-00 the total area 2333800 hectares in Pakistan was under rice cultivation, out of which Sindh contains 685600 hectares. For the same year its production in Pakistan was 4486700 tonnes out of which Sindh production was 1910600 tonnes ( Ref. D)<br /><br />Varieties.<br /><br />The rice varieties Shadab Showa-92, and Sarchar are developed recently accordingly Sindh climate but following varieties are developed under special conditions.<br /><br /><br />* Summer Paddies: TTB. As.35, TTB.As.48;TTB.As.86;D1.3;D1.4; SLO.16; MTU.9; MTU;15,CO,13 and PTB,10<br /><br />• Flood resistant varieties- Kmj, Ar, 108-1, Km,Ar.G.353-148; Kmg,Ar,G,614-25B,BR-14 and BR-15; FR-13A,FR,43-B;MTU,16; PTB,15,Dudhalchi and Jaisuria.<br />• Salt resistant and drought tolerance varieties- Sr-26-B and Orissa.<br />• Early maturing varieties- Ch.2-mature in 85 days, Ch.45- mature in 105 days. Ch.62-mature in 110 days and ch.63-mature in 110 days (Ref.. F)<br /><br />*Rice with enhance nutritional values.<br /><br /><br />Bio-technologically rice varieties are developed, which have Vitamin-A in it. Also scientist have re-programmed rice, so it have 5-10% soluble prolamines, while human digestive system absorbs 70-80% insoluble gluten, this re-programmed rice have more protein in it, and it can easily be absorb by the intestine.<br /><br />The future lies are using newly developed varieties , which give high production per acres, less immune to attacks of infection, diseases, insects, pest and are able to adjust under harsh climatic conditions.<br /><br /><br /><br />Maize. (Scientific name Zea mays Linn)<br /><br />In the year 1999-00 the total area under maize production in Pakistan was 944600 hectares, while in Sindh it was 10100 hectares. For the same year its production in Pakistan was 1565800 tonnes, while in Sindh its production was 5300 tonnes (Ref. D)<br /><br />Varieties.<br />Its varieties runs in to large numbers. Its varieties produce grain colour predominately either white, red or yellow. In Sindh the yellow varieties is more popular. The varieties T.41 and T.4.111 are considered as a good varieties. The future lies to brings more high yielding hybrids of flint maize according to our climatic conditions.<br /><br />Genetically evolved maize.<br /><br />Maize genetically modified for tolerance to the European corn borer (Ostrinia Nubilalis) main insect pest for maize. The genetic modified maize contain bacterial gene, which confers resistance to European corn borer, also contains select -able marker gene for tolerance to herbicide glufosinate ammonium and antibiotic ampicillin. The ampicillin resistance gene has bacterial regulatory sequences and not express in maize. The herbicide resistance gene product was not present in freshly harvested grain from the genetic modified maize.<br /><br />The insecticidal activity was detected in the fresh grain, but disappeared after drying, and dehydration of the grain. The grain bacterial regulatory sequences on the gene could allow the gene to become function if it were transferred from the genetic modified maize to a bacterium, and allow many copy of gene to be generated in a cell, which could lead high level of production of gene product. The chances of such a transfer occurring in very low but infinite , so it is safe to eat.<br />Since the insects and pest are the biggest source of damage maize crop in Sindh. This genetically evolved maize crops have a great future.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Potato ( Scientific name : Solanum tuberosum.L)<br /><br />In the year 1999-00 the area under potato was 97900 hectares in Pakistan out of which Sindh have only 0700 hectares. For the same year the production of potatoes in Pakistan was 1426300 tonnes, out of which Sindh production of potato was 7400 tonnes (Ref. .D)<br /><br />Varieties.<br /><br />• Early varieties- Up-to- Date, Magnum-Bonum, Military special, Great Scot, Hybrid 19, Kheera, Gola.<br />• Mid season varieties- Darjeeling Red Round (Surkha), Italian white, Hybrid-9.<br />• Late season varieties- Phalwa (Patna White)<br />• Sweet Potato varieties- White Star, C.L.44 (Ref. .F)<br /><br />Genetically evolved potatoes.<br /><br />Genetically evolved potatoes name is New leaf. This varieties can be kept for longer time without sprouting. While other varieties produced by this technology showing resistance to insecticide, pesticide, fungicide and nematocide resistance.<br /><br />The genetically evolved potatoes have great market potential due to non- sprouting characteristic and more nutritional values.<br /><br />Squash.<br /><br />In the year 1990-00 there were 218000 hectares in Pakistan was under vegetable out of which 34700 hectares were in Sindh. for the same year vegetable production in Pakistan was 2889300 tonnes, while in Sindh it was 211900 hectares (Ref.. D)<br /><br />Varieties.<br /><br />The genetically developed varieties are resistance to three different types of viruses and its name is Freedom II ,The newly variety of Cook-neck squash called ZW-20. These varieties have great future in Sindh , because having better keeping quality and long shelf life.<br /><br />Soy Bean.( Scientific name : Glycine max )<br /><br />In Pakistan the soy bean comes under Non -Traditional Oil-seeds. In the year 1999-00 there were about 1364000 hectares in Pakistan , out of which 123000 hectares comes under Sindh. For the same year its production in Pakistan was 1537000 tonnes, out of which Sindh produced 131000 tonnes ( Ref. .D)<br /><br />Varieties<br /><br />It has varieties resistant to bacterial diseases (Xanhomonas Phaseoli Sojense ); downy mildew (Perono spora spp.); root-rot (Macrophomina phaseoli ); and leaf Spot (Cerospora Sojina ). (Ref. .F)<br /><br />The varieties resistance to herbicide glufosinate, are used to control weeds. The genetically evolved soybean have better nutritional abilities, which is developed by the transfer of Brazilian protein nut to the soy bean. Some people show allergy to Brazillian nut. Scientist still continued their research to control these allergies. It is possible that in future varieties not showing any allergic problem are developed . The genetically soy bean have great potential in Sindh.<br /><br />Canola or Rape seed ( Scientific name : Brassica Species )<br /><br />In the year 1999-00 in Pakistan 333400 hectares were under rape seed crop, out of which Sindh have 92700 hectares. For the same year in Pakistan its production have 281700 tonnes, out of which Sindh ’s production was 72500 tonnes; while in Pakistan it yield was 845 Kg per hectare, while in Sindh its was is 782 Kg per hectare. (Ref. .D)<br /><br />Varieties.<br /><br />The genetically evolved canola varieties have resistance to herbicide glufosinate, which can control weeds, and varieties having resistance to herbicide gluphosate, which also can control weeds. Some varieties have sterility, this helps in facilitating plant breeding. The canola variety Laurical, has altered oil composition. This variety produce high amount of Lauric acid, and can boost soap market The genetically evolved canola with high protein is used a source of animal feed industry. The Brassica species normally contain toxic glycosinolate and Euric Acid. But genetically evolved varieties are free from this toxicity. Genetically evolved canola variety Topas is used in manufacturing process and production of bio-degradable plastic.<br /><br />Pakistan is spending huge foreign exchange to import canola oil. This crop can bring revolution and remove the important burden on agriculture ,make the country self- sufficient in canola-oil and it production.<br /><br /><br />Alfalfa or Lucerne ( Scientific name : Medicago Sativa )<br />In the year 1999-00 in Pakistan 2649900 hectares were under fodder crop , out of which Sindh had 365700 hectares. For the same year its production in Pakistan was 60215100 tonnes, out of which Sindh had 9131100 tonnes. In Pakistan fodder yield was 22700 tonnes per hectare , of which Sindh ‘s yield was 25000 tonnes per hectares (Ref. D)<br /><br />Varieties.<br /><br />Its varieties Kandahar or Quetta, Persian or Arabian and Meerut. The cold resistant variety’s name is Lucerne No-9. The genetically evolved varieties give yield up to 36 tonnes . of green forage per acre in 8-10 cutting annually. The genetically evolved varieties under work are; varieties resistant to bacterial diseases (Xanthomonas alfalfae); common leaf spot (Pseudopeziza medicaginea ); crown wart (Physoderma alfalfae ); downy mildew (Peronospora Aestivalis ); dry rot (Macrophoomina Phaseoli) and rust (Uromyces Striatus ) , (Ref. F)<br /><br />New varieties.<br /><br />The genetically evolved varieties is programmed by adding nif A gene, this gene is responsible to enhance the activity of enzyme, which help in nitrogen fixation activities. since the genetically evolved strain produce more alfalfa forage in per acre than its respective parent strain, that is why genetically evolved alfalfa have very good future in Sindh.<br /><br />Palm oil.<br /><br />In Sindh only very few farmers have attempted grow palm oil, but it is used to extract fatty easters, glycerol mostly used in soap, candle, lubricants, plastic-idser for PVC, cosmetics industries. It has a great future in Sindh but in very limited area, near the coast in Jati Shah Bander and Ghorabari Talukas. . Palm oil can be used as a substitute of coca butter.<br /><br />Tomato ( Scientific name : Lycopersicum esculentum )<br /><br />In the year 1999-00 tomato in Pakistan was grown on 29300 hectares out of which Sindh cover an area of 6300 hectares. For the same year its production in Pakistan was 311600 tonnes, while in Sindh its production was 32000 tonnes. Its yield in Pakistan was 10600 tonnes per hectare in Sindh , its yield was 5100 tonnes per hectares (Ref. .D)<br /><br />Genetically improved tomatoes varieties.<br /><br />• The genetically improve varieties produce fruits, having controlled and reduced pectin degrading enzyme, but its nutritional values are similar to that of conventionally bred counter part, but this variety have longer shelf life.<br /><br />• The tomato ( Cherry variety ) having altered ripening process. It can keep long as fresh for long time . It helps in fresh market value.<br />• The tomato variety name Flvr Saver, has delayed ripening gene. This variety has large demand in fresh vegetable market.<br />• Tomato variety have altered pectin enzyme activities and produce thick skin, having better processing qualities is under process.<br />• Tomato Lycopersicon Chilense has drought resistant qualities.<br />• The tomato variety Lycopersicon Chimielewskii. Shows improved colour intensity, with more sugar content in it.<br />• The tomato variety Lycopersicon Esculenturn Cerasi Fomr, can stand high temperature and humidity.<br />• The tomato variety Lycopersicon Hirsuturm and for high altitute growning abilities is resistant to many diseases.<br />• The tomato variety Lycopersicon Parviflorium has better colour with increase soluble solid concentration.<br />• Tomato variety Lycopersicorn Pennellilii, shows drought resistance abilities, enhances Vitamin C contents and has more sugar content in it.<br />• The tomato variety Lycopersicon Peruvianum has pest resistant abilities with rich source of Vitamin C.<br />• Tomato variety Lycopersicon Pimpinellifollum shows resistance to many diseases, has low acidity but high concentration of Vitamin C in it.<br /><br /><br />All Fruit Crops.<br /><br />In the year 1999-00 the area under all fruit crops in Pakistan was 639000 hectares, while in Sindh it was 101200 hectares, for the same year all fruits production in Pakistan was 6152600 tonnes, while in Sindh all fruit production was 587100 tonnes (Ref. .D)<br /><br />All Fruit Crops in Sindh .Pakistan.<br /><br />All genetically evolved fruit developed showing better qualities, long shelf-life, enhance nutritional values, attractive colour, uniform size, mature uniformly, long-harvest season, dwarf rootstock, rootstock resistant to adverse environmental condition, having pest resistant ability especially fruit fly and insect attacks, disease resistant against- powdery mildew, anthracnose various viral and bacterial infections, better physiological feature against malformation, internal fruit breakdown and softening of fruits, all fruits have early maturation, with good food processing qualities. Varieties resistant to salinity, acidity and drought conditions, produce high yield. Dwarf cultivars, produce more yield per acres and have better mechanical harvesting qualities.<br /><br />The new cultivars in fruit crops, if introduced and propagated, will bring revolution in agriculture sector.<br /><br />Citrus Fruits .<br /><br />It has many varieties of which the following cover maximum are :<br />• Grape fruit (Citrus Paradisi Macfi )<br />• Lemon ( Citrus limonia Osbeck )<br />• Lime ( Citrus Aurantifolia Swingle )<br /><br />In the year 1999-00 in Pakistan had 1958000 hectares were under citrus crop out of which Sindh had 4100 hectares. For the same year citrus production in Pakistan was 1960800 tonnes , out of which Sindh produce 34600 tonnes citrus fruit. (Ref. D)<br /><br />Future varieties.(Grape Fruit)<br /><br />Deeper Pink or Red Marsh or Thompson seedless, Ruby or Ruby Red ( mutation of Thompson seedless ), Red Blush, Shamber, Star Ruby,Ray Ruby, Flame seedless, Rio-Red or Real Red, Nelruby (Nelspruit Ruby), Foster, Chironia, Royal, Puma, Poorman’s Oraange, , Golden special, Wheeny, Melogold, and Pomelit (Shaddock- Hybrid 202) .(Ref. .I)<br /><br />Lemon future varieties.<br /><br />Eureka, Femminello, Hermosa, Limoni, Lisbon, Primofiori, Speciale, Verna, Meyor and Villa Franka Geneva . (Ref. I)<br /><br />Lime future Varieties.<br /><br />Keghazi, Nimbo, Mitha Nimbo and Thaitti lime or Persian lime Merican lime, Rangpur lime. (Ref. .I)<br /><br />Mango ( Scientific Name : Mangifera Indica )<br /><br />In the year 1999-00 mango in Pakistan mangoes was produced on 92100 hectare out of which Sindh covered 41700 hectares of land . For the same year mango production in Pakistan was 918600 tonnes, while in Sindh production was 306500 tonnes of mangoes. (Ref. D)<br /><br />Local Mangoes varieties.<br /><br />Present varieties grown in Sindh are:<br />Langra, Dusehri, Alphanso ,Bombay, Summer Bahisht, Rampur, Fajri, Kalan, Chaunsa, Anwar Retoul, Sindhri, Banganpali, Swarnareca, Neelum, Fazli and Zafran. (Ref. .J)<br /><br />Future Mangoes Varieties.<br /><br />Apple, Peach, Haden, Bourbon, Espada , Itamaraca, Tomy Atkins, Keitt, Tucpentine, No-11, Amarpali, Malika, Chancleto, Paloma , Hilaza, Mariquiteno, Sufaida, Albania, Papaya, Corazon, Kent , Biscochuclo, Reina de Mexico, Filipino ,combodiana, Irwin, Eidon, Glenn, Palmer, Ruby, Van Dyke, Carrrie, Valencia Pride, jubilee, Lippens, Parvin, Sensation, Springfields , Sunset, Smith, FairChild, Brooks, Madome, Fracnis, Julie , Peter, Amelie, Manzanillo, Caroboa, Manila, Rapoza, Philot, Maomi-K, Ah-Ping, Paris No-1, Harders Gorvia, Tele Nene, Chulucanas, Chato de Ica, Rosado de Ica, Carne de Ica Rosica, Cariolle de Carne, Cariollo rosado, President, De Chupar, Co-pachito, Criollo, Smith , Golek, Arumanis, Mangalagi, Barido, Ngowe, Carabao, Pico, Pope , Ottis, Pahuton, Senora, Binoboy, Dudl, Manklar and RAD. (Ref. K)<br /><br />Mango has very big future in Sindh, due to its climate is one month a- head than other provinces of Pakistan, so the mangoes will ripen and mature and come in the market early. This fetches good price in the market and will have a big demand of fresh mango market internationally.<br /><br /><br />Banana ( Scientific Name : Musa spp. Family . Musaceae)<br /><br />In the year 1999-00 in Pakistan , the area under banana cultivation was 26000 hectares, in which Sindh have 22400 hectares under banana cultivation. For the same year banana production in Pakistan was 95700 tonnes, while Sindh banana production was 63800 tonnes. (Ref. .D)<br /><br />Banana Varieties in Sindh. (Ref. .L)<br /><br />Sindh has two major banana varieties.<br />• Cavendish Dwarf (Basrai)<br />• Cavendish Giant (William Hybrid)<br /><br />Future of Banana in Sindh.<br /><br />In 1988 banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBT) was found by M .H. Panhwar in Sindh. It started near Sakro-Keti Bunder and gradually spread over to whole Sindh. In the year 1978 Sindh had 60,000 hectares under banana cultivation, with an average yield of 8 tonnes per acres and (BBT) virus devastated all the farms and destroyed all banana cultivated area . (Ref. M)<br /><br /><br />Apple ( Scientific name : Malus Pumila Mill ; Syn. Pyrus Malus Linn)<br /><br /><br />In the year 1999-00 the area under apple crop in Pakistan was 45500 hectares, out of which Sindh have only 0100 hectare under apple. For the same year apple production in Pakistan was 532300 tonnes , while in Sindh only production was 0200 tonnes . (Ref. .D). Few farmers in Sindh grow apple, which is crab apple.<br /><br /><br />Apple fruit in Sindh.<br /><br />Sindh have sub-tropical climate with 100-550 chill units. Only Panhwar Fruit Farm in Sindh have following low-chill apple varieties Anna, Dorset Goldern, Einshmer .Sindh has great potential of introducing the above cultivars.<br /><br />Guava (Scientific name :Psidium Guajava L.<br />Family.Myrtaceae)<br /><br />In the year 1999-00 in Pakistan 57400 hectares were under guava crop, out of which Sindh have 4400 hectares. For the same year guava production in Pakistan was 461400 tonnes in Sindh it production was 26700 tonnes (Ref.. D)<br /><br />Local guava varieties.<br /><br />Local guava varieties are very inferior in production, taste and are attacked by large number of infections and diseases and its keeping quality is very low.<br /><br />Future Guava Varieties. (Ref.-O)<br /><br />Beaumont, Ka Hua Kula (097), Hong Kong Pink, Fan Relief, 11-56 (T3), Supreme (F1), Ruby, Miami Red, Weber, Rolf Hart, GAH- 5673, GA11-56 III, Bassateen, Rojo, Africano, Agrio, Fan Retief guava (Dual Purpose ), Dimple Guava (Fredene, Weldheim, Jonelle), Psidium (Beaumont), Psodium cattleianum GPI-823, Psidium Guayjva, Pomoho Pink (Florida), Brazil white, Brazil Red, Red Decent, Pomho Pink, Munlingia Calabura, (Physalis Peruviana), Dovyalis bebecaipa, Solanum guifoense, Psidium guajava IPA-B-22.1, Psidium guajva IPA-B-14.2, Psidium guajava PIA-B-14.3, GOIABA-IAC-4.<br /><br />Guava not only can have fresh fruit market in Sindh but it will have big demand for processed in food industry in Pakistan and Internationally as well.<br /><br />Peach ( Scientific Name : Prunus Persica Stocks. Family. Rosaceae.<br /><br />In the year 1999-00 the area under peach was 4400 hectares, where these shares comes from Punjab and Balochistan. For the same year peach production in Pakistan was 43700 tonnes, while nobody except Mr .M .H.Panhwar and Mrs. Farzana Panhwar grow peaches at Panhwar Fruit Farm in Sindh , many varieties of peaches.(Ref. D)<br /><br />Varieties.<br /><br />Sindh have Sub-tropical climate, with 100-550 chill units. Under such condition only low chill peach varieties can grow in Sindh. The varieties grown in Sindh are. Florida beauty, Florida Prince, Tropical beauty, Rayon, Tropical sweet, Florida star, Tropical snow and Tropical Glo, are successfully grown by M.H.Panhwar and Mrs.Farzana Panhwar at Panhwar Fruit Farm at Tando Jam in .Pakistan. Peaches are in great demand as fresh fruit, because Sindh peaches comes in the month of May-July, when the peaches supply from other provinces not yet started. Peaches have very big future in Sindh.( Ref. .P)<br /><br />Grapes ( Scientific name : Vitis Vinifera .L., Ampelidaceae family. Vitaceae.<br /><br />In the year 1999-00 the grapes in Pakistan was grown an 9000 hectares , while they are mostly grown in Balochistan and N.W.F.P There production in the year 1999-00 in Pakistan was 67300 tonnes . No one grow grapes in Sindh, except Mr .M.H.Panhwar and Mrs.Farzana Panhwar at Panhwar Fruit Farm in Sindh .(Ref. .D)<br /><br />Future Varieties on grapes in Sindh<br /><br />Most of these grapes varieties are already under cultivation by M.H.panhwar & Farzana Panhwar<br />The various varieties of grapes grown , as well as future varieties are as under. (Ref. .Q)<br />• White grapes varieties - Emerald seedless, Fresno seedless and Sultana Muscata.<br />• Black grape varieties- Beauty seedless, Black Muscat of Hamberg, Alphonso lavalle, Monuka , Russian seedless.<br />• Red grapes varieties- Flame seedless, Ruby seedless, Red globe, Empeor seedless, King Ruby, Cardinal seedless.<br />• Golden grape varieties- Italia seedless, Thompson seedless, Regina (Waltam Cross ), Perlette seedless, Interlaken seedless, Himrood seedless and Fanta’sy seedless.<br />• Raisin varieties- Thomuscat, Moscata, Emeralad seedless , Fresno 58-93, Russian seedless, Australian MS-23-7, CG-1481, Barlinka, Ribeir and Sultaniana.<br /><br />Climate of Sindh is extremely suitable for grapes growing. It have very great future in Sindh.<br /><br />Pomegranate ( Scientific name : Punica Granatum Linn. Family Punicaceae.)<br /><br />In the year 1999-00 the pomegranate in Pakistan was grown an area of 6500 hectares , it production was 96700 tonnes. Most of pomegranate comes from Balochistan and N.W.F.P. In Sindh only M.H.Panhwar and Farzana Panhwar grow pomegranate successfully at Panhwar Fruit Farm. (Ref. .D)<br /><br />Varieties grown at Panhwar fruit farm are. Wonderful, Graneda, Ruby Red and Fleshman (Ref. .R)<br /><br />Future varieties of pomegranate in Sindh.<br /><br />Foot Hill, Gulosha Rosovayo, Vales, Shepands Red, Karan Seclation, Eliche, Jodhpuri, Ganesh, Poona, Paper Shell, Ras-el-Baghi, Roman Chakab Mallisi, Selimi, Yarquard, Ahmar , Asward, Halwa , Halu, Ragwani, Almasi, Teadril, Molar, Wonderrful, Sweet, Kabul, Red Lou Fani, Maliss Rasel Baghal, Publa, Man gualti, Granada de China, Granode Agria, Tehuacan, Basein, Ganeshi Kabuli, Dolka, Bedana , kalishirin, Glue-Shahi, Kozkai, Achikdona , Soni Bedana, Shirin, Schahvar<br />Bala Myursal, Kara-Bela-Myursal, Gyuleisha -Azerbaidazannskaya, Bashkalinskili, Al-Shin, Kai Achak Anor, Shrin Nor and Kazake Anor (Ref. .R)<br /><br />Pomegranate have great demand both as a fresh fruit as well as processing and juice industry.<br /><br /><br />Dates ( Scientific name : Phonix Dactylifera-L, family Palmae.)<br /><br />In the year 1999-00 in Pakistan the dates was covering an area 75200 hectares, while in Sindh it cover an area of 20700 hectares. For the same year its production in Pakistan was 581200 tonnes , while in Sindh its production was 111500 tonnes (Ref. .D)<br /><br />Different forms of date fruit are used as source of food these are.<br />• Khasiyun<br />• Kimri.<br />• Doka or Khalal.<br />• Looni KharKoon.<br />• Dang ( Rutab)<br />• Pind or tree ripened (Van Pakal) or Tamar or Kharak.<br /><br />Local varieties of dates in Sindh are as under.<br /><br />DegletNoor, Asel, Halawi , Khudrawy, Zahidi, Zari, Shamran, Jowan, Bcrni, Kahrba, Kalud, and Begum Jangi.<br /><br />Future varieties for Sindh.<br /><br />Barhi, Dayri, Hayany, khastawi, Maktoom, Medjool, Saidy. ,Sayer, Thoory, Amir Haji, Iteema, Migraf, Manakhir, Agnioua, Chars, Murzaban, Khanezi, Angal, Haiyani, Saidy, Zagloul, Samani, Hamraiya, Irzeiz, Ustaumran, Bikraari, Taasfirt, Murzabad, Sucotari , Succari, Mabsaly, Fardh, Tingerguel, Bufaguns, Barakaavi, Misharig-Khatiba, Fatumi, Mozawati, and Dhakki.<br /><br />Dates have very big future. The local varieties had shown failure due to low yield, poor harvest abilities, rain and humidity susceptibility. attacks by large number of pest and diseases. The tissue culture and genetically evolved varieties have very big future in Pakistan.<br /><br />Papaya ( Scientific name : Carica Papaya. Family, Caricaveae.)<br /><br />Local varieties are Honeydew ( Malhubindu), Singapore, Ceylon and Washington.<br /><br />Future varieties.<br /><br />Solo , Bluestem, Graham, Fairchild, Betty and Kissimmee, Sun-Rise Hava, Waimanalo , Maroochy, Sunybank Coorg Honey-2, CO-IB, Honey-Dew-2, CO-2 and CO-5, Kapoho, Masumoto Solo, Honey Gold, Singapore, PR.8-65, Pink flesh, Puer to Rico, Blue Solo, Brazilian-3, Mexico-2, Campo Grande, Tocaimera, Zapote, Bettina, 43-A-3, Pusa Giant, Pusa Dwarf, Norton, Purplesten, Bluestem, PR-6-65 and PR.7-65.( Ref. S)<br /><br />Papaya fruit have very big future in Sindh, both as fresh fruit market as well as Papain industry.<br /><br />Litchi ( Scientific name : Litchi Chinensis Sonn. Family. Sapindaceae.)<br /><br />In Sindh only three small farmer grows litchi. Local varieties Bedana , Surahi and Gola. But M.H.Panwar and Farzana Panhwar they grows large number of selected from seedlings varieties at Panhwar Fruit Farm.<br /><br />Future varieties .<br /><br />Wai Chee, Hakk Yip, Sum Yee , Hong, kwai, May, No Mai Chee, Souey Tung, Taiso, Brewster, Shah Keng, Chony , Young Ong, Chang yum Hong, Tai So, Baidum, Pink, Salathiel, Kaimana, Brewster Sweet Cliff, pink, Maritius, Kohala , Groff, Emperor, Ambonia, Grove Special, Hak Ip, Hanging Green, Kwaluk, Late Glob, Souey Tung, Peerless, Garnets, Shanchi, Yellow Red, Snatheil, Acekce, Kau Iu, Kwai Wei, Hsiang Li, Hsi Chio Tsu, Hei yeh , Fei Tsuhsiano, T’ang Po, Shang shou Huai Ch’umatsu, Tatsao, , , Huai Chin, San Yuch Hung, Pai La Li Chin, Shan Chih, Fay Zee Siu. (Ref. T)<br /><br />Litchi has a great potential as a table varieties as well as canned fruit, and processed industry.<br /><br />Longan ( Scientific name : Euphoria Longana )<br /><br />In Sindh longan is only grown by M.H.Panhwar and Farzana Panhwar at Panhwar Fruit Farm.<br /><br />Future Varieties.<br /><br />Kohala, Daw, Dang, Chompoo, Haew, Biew Kiew, Badium, Homes tead, Ponai Kay Sweeney, Black ball, Fukho No-2, Iiao , Wai, Carambo , Sweeney, Saig Geeb, Shek Yip, Fa Hakk, Fa Hok Chai, Duanyu , Chien Leiu, Yeng Tau Yeh, Chau on diao, Chiu Yeun Wu, and Xixia. (Ref. U)<br /><br />Longan have a great future as fresh table fruit in Sindh.<br /><br /><br />Chiku ( Scientific name : Sapodilla or Sapota, family. Sapotaceae)<br /><br />In Sindh we have only two local varieties called gola and egg.<br /><br />Future Varieties.<br /><br />Brown Sugar , Prolific, Russell, and Tikal, Kalipatti, Calcutta Special (Ref.B3 )<br />Pilipatti, Ju-makhia , Mohana Gooti, Kittubarti, Cricket Ball, Dwarapudi, Bangalore, Jonnava-losa-I, Jonnava-losa-II, Jonnavalosa Round, Gauranga, Ayyangar , Thagarammudi, Badam Bhuri, Calculta Round , CO-I, Dhola Diwani, Fingar, Gavarayya , Guthi, Kali, Vanjet, Pot, Sawo betewi, Sawo Koolon, Sawo apel Kalpa, SCH-02, SCH-03, SCH-07, SCH-08, SCH-28, Modello, Seedless, Boetzberg, Larsen, Morning Star, Jamica ‘8, Jamica ’10, Tikal, Addley, Adelide, Big Pine Key, Black, Jamica N0-4, Jamica N0-5 , Martin, Saunders, Ponderosa, Java, Sao Manila , Native, Formosa, Rangel . (Ref. .Y)<br /><br />The local chicku varieties are low in yielding. The improved varieties have very big market potential due to big in size, uniform ripening , large size, and better shelf life.<br /><br /><br />Jaman ( Scientific name : Syzigium Cumini. Family.Myrtaceae )<br /><br />In Sindh we have only two local varieties, Tall and Dwarf.<br /><br />Future varieties .<br /><br />• Syzigium Jambos (Rose apple or Safed jamun )<br />• Syzigium Fruitecosum, Syzigium Javanica.<br />• Syzigium densiflora, Syzigium Uniflora and syzigium Zeylanica.<br />• (Ref. A1)<br /><br />Early Wild, Late Wild, Pharenda, Small Jaman and Dabaka (Ref-B3)<br /><br />Jaman have big future as agro-forest tree in Sindh. Its wood, leaves and bark is used in large number of medicines and industries. The jaman fruit is the only fruit advised by the doctor to be given to diabetic patients. Its fruit contain Insulin, which helps in lowering the blood sugar level, but lot of research is needed to improve its keeping qualities and extraction of very useful medicines out of it.<br /><br /><br />Phalsa ( scientific name : Grcwia Asiatica Linn. Family, Tiliaceae )<br /><br />The Species Grewia Vestita Wall: are divided into two groups.<br />• Grewia Tilliacfolia.<br />• Grewia Sapinda.<br />• ( Ref. .J)<br />In Sindh only Grewia Tilliacfolia is found. The local varieties Sharbati Tall and Sharbati Dwarf are commonly found ( Ref. A1)<br /><br />The tall variety produce fruit which is more acidic, while the dwarf produce fruit with small fruit , having small seeds.<br /><br />Phalsa have great potential both as fresh fruit as well as processing , juice, jam and jelly making. It is a good source of Vitamin C and used as a quick source of as a relief agent against high summer heat in Sindh.<br /><br /><br />Custard Apple ( Scientific name : Anona Squamosa Linn. Family. Anonaceae)<br /><br />Although more than 50 species are present in the World, in Sindh we have only Anona Squamosa ( Sitaphal Syn. Sarifa ) and Anona Reticulata ( Ramphal ) as local varieties.<br /><br />Future varieties.<br /><br />Loma , Mc.Pherson , Ott, Ryerson and Sallmon. ( Ref.Z)<br /><br />Lisa, Impresa , Umbonada, Papilonado, Tetilaolo, Tuberculada, #1, # 2, Chauez, Namas, RioNegro, Bronceada, Concha Picuda, Terciopelo, Pinchua, Basta, Bays, Whaley, Deliciosa, Booth, ,Carter, Ryerson, White , Chaffey, Horton , Golden Russct, Mira Vista and Salmn. ( Ref. B3)<br /><br />Although the local varieties are heavy bearers and drought and salinity resistant, but are severely attacked by powdery mildew. The genetically evolved insects, pest and diseases resistant varieties have great future in Sindh.<br /><br /><br />Jujube ( Scientific name : Zizyphus Jujube Lam. Family.Rhamnaceae)<br /><br />Many local grafted varieties, are very successful in Sindh.<br /><br />Future varieties.<br /><br />Banarasi, Pewandi, Dandan, Kaithli, Muria Maharara, Narikelee, Nazuk, Sanauri -1,<br />Sanauri-5, Thornless, Umran, Banarsi, Karaka Kaithli, Katha Phal, Gular Bashi, Kheera, Nazuk, Seober, Var. 1, Var.2, Var.3, Var.4 and Var.5 ( Ref.B3)<br /><br />Zizyphus.Vulgaris, Z.Sativa , Z.rotundifolia, Z.oncoplia, Z.xylocarnus, Z.rugosa, Z.iumiculosa, Z.spina, Z.glabrata, Z. oxyphylla , Z.mucronata, Z.Joazeiro, Z.mistol, Z.lotus, Z.chrisi, Lang, Mushing Hong, Shui Men, So Tu, Tigertooth, Leon Burk, Intermis, and Chico ( Ref. V)<br /><br />Gola is the common variety grown throughout Sindh, it can stand drought and salinity, produce good crop, but the its potential to export in the International market is limited due to severe attacks of infection and diseases, so the future of new varieties in Sindh is extremely good .Due to recent drought many rear plantation of Z.mauritanisa have come and rate are falling. Unless it is exported on large scale, the plantation may have to be removed.<br /><br />Fig ( Scientific name : Ficus Carica L. family.moraceae)<br /><br />In Sindh only M.H.Panhwar and Farzana Panhwar grow Italian Everbearer and Brown Turkey, fig at Panhwar Fruit Farm.<br /><br />Future varieties.<br /><br />Celeste, Brunswick, Marseilles, Adriatic, Genoa, Purple Genoa, Black Ischia and Poona. ( Ref.B3)<br /><br />Cape white, Preston Prolific, White Genoa, Black Genoa, Brown Turkey, white Adriatic, Excel, Flanders, Adriatic, Calimyrna, Kadota, Mission, Conadria, King and Diredo and Brown Turkey. (Ref. W)<br /><br />In Sindh M.H.Panhwar Mrs.Farzana Panhwar they grow Brown Turkey, which have big market as a fresh fruit. It is very uncommon in Pakistan, because here Pakistan has only dried fig varieties, which are grown in Northern areas of Pakistan. Fig fruit not only is used as a fresh fruit but it is used in fudge making. In Sindh its plant is used as a hedge, it can stand drought, high temperature and salinity conditions up to some extent.<br /><br /><br />Melon ( Scientific name : Citrullus Lanatus )<br /><br />The Musk melon, Honey dew melon and water melon are common varieties in Sindh ( Ref. .X)<br />Pine-melon is considered to be future variety in Sindh ( Ref.B1)<br /><br />Major future varieties.<br /><br />Nemta Dark ( W42) F1, Black Lee ( W24) F1, Black Ball ( w22) F1, Sweet Black ( T2-7) F1 ,Red Storm ( 2006) F1, Green Light ( W6) F1, Celebration ( W44) F1, Charles Grey ( W18 ) F1, Legend Seedless, Trimander ( 55) seedless, Yellow baby ( S4) seedless, Black babay ( S2) seedless, Gold Kin ( 2002-20) seedless, Mankata-seedless, Beautiful Ball ( S8), seedless, Desert Strim ( 2401), Black Diamond ( W11) F1, Tender True ( 2301), Seedless, Yellow Inter ((24.2) seedless, Free Grower (W28) F1, New Visa ( W27 ) F1, Merchant ( B02-17) F1, Long Lamp ( VS76)F1, Big Crina ( W26) F1, Camanu (F1), Naukara (F1), Lee 1( W37) F1, Amena ( F10 ), Black Sun (W9) F1, Yellow Show ( 2020) F1, Sweet Heat ( w261) F1, Orang Sweet ( W25) F1, Green Olive ( 2013) F1, Black Doll ( W20) F1, Little Angel ( w21) F1, Vita Star ( W17) F1. ( Ref.B2)<br /><br />Hybrid Melon varieties.<br /><br />Snow White 1(M13) F1, Snow White 11 ( M14) F1, Kin Yellow ( M18) F1, Honey Fen ( M19) F1, Early Ha ( M17) F1, Carvela ( # 11) F1, Kin Fuhen ( M26) F1, Honey Fen ( M19) F1, Superman ( M12) F1, Queen Kata (M2) F1 , Tru Tala.F1, Goddess ( M20) F1, Honey Cun ( M22) F1, Nova F1, Kam Tam F1, Delicious ( VM96) F1, Excellence ( VM33) F1, Green Jade ( M27) F1.<br /><br />Sindh ’s climate is extremely suitable for all kinds of melons, especially the seedless varieties, having more sugar to acid ratio, better post-harvest life, high yielding , more resistant to infections and diseases.<br /><br />Sindh Special Fruit Crops.<br /><br />The Statistics of peaches, grapes, pomegranate, papaya, litchi, longon, chicku, jamun, phalsa, custard apple, jujube, fig , musk melon, honey dew melon and water melons for Sindh are not available. The reason is due to non-functional activities of the Sindh Agriculture Department, Sindh Agriculture Research Institute, Sindh agriculture University, Sindh Agriculture Research Stations and Sindh Agriculture Extension work. All the above department have not helped the farmer or researcher to work and come forward, they have collected no data since 1950 , to improve the techniques and guidance of teaching and training the farmers , as a results the Pakistan Ministry of food ,Agriculture and livestock ( Economic Wing ) Islamabad is unable to get and add the statistic of above crops under Sindh., one can see the lack of knowledge in Agriculture Statistic of Pakistan 1999-00 book for the above crops in Sindh.<br />This further worsening the situation for Sindh is not getting any share of money for Agriculture Research and on-going agricultural activities in Sindh, due to not getting enough share of funds from the Federal Ministry , so the poor performance of agricultural sector in Sindh, pushed this province in to deep poverty, which has results in to corruption, stagnancy in progress and breakdown of law and order situation in Sindh.<br /><br />Future suggestion for improving the Agriculture in Sindh.<br /><br />The suggestion are as under:<br />• Government should take immediate steps to monitor Agriculture Departments, Agricultural Research Institute, Agricultural Universities and Agricultural Extension Units in Sindh.<br />• Government should provide Agriculture Extension service to the farmer, this service is non-existence right now.<br />• The proper Agricultural Research analysis laboratories with latest equipment and staff should be provided.<br />• The biotechnology, genetic engineering and tissue culture laboratories should be established in Sindh.<br />• In Sindh data collection, printing and dissemination Centre should be established.<br />• Proper soil testing and leaf analysis laboratories should be established.<br />• The library with latest research reports ad journals and Internet facilities should be provided.<br />• The environmental protection Centre should be established.<br />• The hospital with facilities of occupational diseases should be established.<br />• Government should take drastically strong steps to eliminate and reduce the illiteracy rate in the province.<br />• The stock supplies of standard fertilisers and seeds should be supplied at the season.<br />• The hospital facilities with the hazard prevention and cure at the field, as well as the poison caused by the any insecticide, pesticide, weedicide and fungicide , medicines and first aid should be available in Sindh.<br />• All Federal Ministries should keep in touch with the Sindh Department.<br /><br />• Post-harvest facilities, its processing and cold-storage should be established in Sindh.<br />• All farm to market road should be established , which are non- existence.<br />• Government should provide farmer market to sale their produce themselves.<br />• Government should revised present Agricultural commodities prices.<br />• Government should provide facilities for publishing Agricultural Research Reports, thesis, books ,magazine and journals to bring awareness among the peoples.<br />• Government should provide an out-let of import and export facilities at farmer’s door.<br />• Government should boost organic agriculture and sustainable agriculture to control environmental pollution.<br /><br /><br />Conclusion.<br /><br />The climatic conditions and seasons in Sindh are such that all fruits and vegetable and agricultural crops mature nearly one month earlier than other Provinces of Pakistan. It is not able to provide fresh fruits and agricultural commodities due to lack of encouragement and education and training of farmers and also is not able to facilities in controlling pollution caused by the use of processed food , in which lot of chemicals additive, preservative and derivatives are used to keep them fresh and without any fungal, virus or bacterial attack, . These things show negative effect on the health of the users.<br />Since Sindh has good soil, favourable temperature and enough water facilities, if little efforts are put in agriculture sector this province will bring revolution in agriculture and boost the country’s economy and bring the sustainable development in the country and peace globally.<br /><br />Reference.<br /><br />Contact of Panhwar Fruit Farm in Sindh.Pakistan.<br /><br />Panhwar Fruit farm is owned and run by Panhwar Trust.<br /><br />Location.<br /><br />The farm is located 25°30', 68°30'E. Panhwar Fruit Farm is located just 6 km from Tando Jam Agricultural University toward Mirpurkhas Road in Sindh. Pakistan.<br /><br />Contact persons.<br /><br />Mrs.Farzana Panhwar<br />E-mail. Farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com and farzanapanhwar@yahoo.com<br />Mr.M.H.Panhwar<br />E-mail. Panhwarmh@hotmail.com and Mobile No. 0300-2477-243.<br />General Manager Field. Mr.Bachael Sail.<br />Field Manager. Mr.Ghulam Ali Talpur.<br />Field Manager. Khalari.<br /><br />Head office.<br /><br />157-C.Unit.No.2.Latifabad.Hyderabad.<br />Sindh .Pakistan.<br />Tel No. . 862570 7 860410<br />Fax. 860410<br />OR<br />54-D.Block.9.Clifton.<br />Karachi-75600. Pakistan.<br />Tel. 5830816 & 5830826.<br />Fax. 5830826<br />At Panhwar Fruit Farm, both Mrs.Farzana Panhwar and Mr.M.H.Panhwar had successfully introduced some 25 new fruit crops in Sindh, on a commercial Scale. Both are authors of some 13 manuals on fruit crops growing in Sindh and about 10 books on fruits post-harvest technology.<br /><br />If any one needs information or interested in publication of our books, we feel too happy to share our experience and help in arranging Panhwar Fruit Farm Visit.<br /><br /><br />References.<br /><br />A) 2003 World Population Sheet of the Population Reference Bureau, Demographic data and estimates for the Countries and Regions of the World.<br />B) Population, Environment, Dynamics, A data sheet from the population Reference Bureau by Diana Cornelius and Jame Cover, Population Bureau, U.S.A<br />C) Scarps Monitoring, WAPDA ,Lahore, ( Pakistan Statistical Year Book FBS )<br />D) Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan 1999-00, Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Live stock ,FALD- Division ( Economic Wing ), Islamabad, 302p.<br />E) Government of Pakistan Planning commission, Annual Plan 2003-2004, Economic Frame Work and Public Sector Development Programme, Islamabad, June-2003.<br />F) Kalidas Sawhney , Dr.DAJI, Dr.Raghvan, and Dr.V.S.Bhatt, Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi, 1961, 761p. Revised edition, 1987, 1303p, Hand Book of Agriculture, I.C.A.R<br />G) F.A .Hammer Schlag and R.E. Litz, Biotechnology of Perennial Fruit Crops, 1992, C.A.B, International, 550p<br />H) The Brooks and Olmo Register of Fruits and Nut Varieties , third edition, 1997, ASHS Press, 743p.<br />I) Grape Fruit Growing Manual by M.H.Panhwar and Mrs.Farzana Panhwar.<br />J) Muhmmad Asghar Gianai , Atreatise on Horticulture, Bureau of Agriculture Information ( Publication Divisions ), Department of Agriculture Government of West Pakistan, Lahore, 1968,538p<br />.<br />K) Mango Fruit growing Maual by M.H..Panhwar and Mrs.Farzana Panhwar.<br />L) The Banana Epidemic in Sindh by mM.H..Panhwar.<br />M) Banana Disease in Sindh by M.H.Panhwar.<br />N) Apple and Peach Growing Manual by M.H.Panhwar and Mrs.Farzana Panhwar.<br />O) Guava Growing Manual by M.H.Panhwar and Mrs.Farzana Panhwar.<br />P) Peach Growing Manual by M.H.Panhwar and Mrs.Farzana Panhwar.<br />Q) Grapes Growing Manual by M.H.Panhwar and Mrs.Farzana Panhwar.<br />R) Pomegranate Growing Manual by M.H.Panhwar and Mrs.Farzana Panhwar.<br />S) Papaya and Pawpawa Growing Manual by M.H.Panhwar and Mrs.Farzana Panhwar.<br />T) Lychee Growing Manual by M.H.Panhwar and Mrs.Farzana Panhwar.<br />U) Longan Growing Manual by M.H.Panhwar and Mrs.Farzana Panhwar.<br />V) A Hand Book of Chinese and South Asian Jujube, Zizyphus jujuba and Zizyphus Mauritiana , The Beer. By M.H.Panhwar and Mrs.Farzana panhwar.<br />W) Fig Growing Manual by M.H.Panhwar and Mrs.Farzana Panhwar.<br />X) Post-harvest Technology For Export of Melons by M.H.Panhwar and Mrs.Farzana Panhwar.<br />Y) Brooks and Olmo. Register of Fruit and Nut Varieties, 3rd edition 1997, ASHS Press, 743p<br />Z) The Chiku neglected fruit of Sindh by Mrs.Farzana Panhwar.<br /><br />A1) S.P.Singh, Fruit Crops for Wasteland, Scientific Publisher India, 1992, 227p.<br />B1) Josephine Bacon, The Complete Guide to Exotic Fruits and Vegetables, Xanadu, 1988, 242p<br />B2) XIYU Seeds, Water melon and Melons in China.<br />B3) Julia F. Morton, Fruit of Warm climate, Creative Resource System Inc., 505p<br />B4) T.K.Bose and S.K.Mitra, Fruits Tropical and Subtropical, Naya Prokash, 1990, 838p.<br /><br /><br />Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs)<br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad<br />(Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br />farzanapanhwar@yahoo.com Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410<br /><br />Mobile No . 0300-2477-243.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />.Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-29496482867400586582007-08-23T02:39:00.001-07:002007-08-23T02:39:49.502-07:00THE ROLE OF VOLUNTEERS TO FIGHT FOR POVERTY, EQUALITY, HUMAN RIGHT IN DIVERSE CULTURE AND BRING SOCIAL, ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND PEACE IN THETHE ROLE OF VOLUNTEERS TO FIGHT FOR POVERTY, EQUALITY, HUMAN RIGHT IN DIVERSE CULTURE AND BRING SOCIAL, ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND PEACE IN THE WORLD. A PAKISTANI VIEW POINT.<br /><br />Objective. <br /><br />To train volunteers with advance technologies to become professional and use advance tools to handle social justice, cultural diversity, globalization and bring peace and sustainability in the universe. <br /><br />Abstract.<br /><br />Volunteers can be sustainable, volunteer them-selves of aware of problems and solution thereof. The volunteers especially the young one need intensive training by senior volunteer, or senior organisations. <br /><br />Sustainable community:- can be develop by volunteers if a community realises that it is advantages to all of the community participant not present but in the long run. And they are convince by these act every one in the community will benefit and none will be at disadvantage if some one in community at a disadvantage he could be compensated by community in some way or other. Their acts to improves the environment and the community Recognition of volunteer service is one way to encourage for volunteer work.<br /><br />Once trained volunteers:- become specialist in his own field as soon as there is more demand of community on him he works more towards specialisation but community will benefit more by special knowledge and pay them for this services. <br /><br />Equal opportunity:- for various and diverse culture can be provided by volunteers though various methods, various network can contribute to this by proper communication between the members of the net-work. <br /><br />Globalization:- Is a tool to create equal opportunities and human rights. Its aim to create equality, equal opportunity, eliminate discrimination .communications and methods to achieve. Internet is a best opportunity for such purposes. The program should aim at working towards the goal with minimum interference and their is a possibility that volunteer-able culture may gradually change and remain sustainable.<br />Equal opportunity to all citizens, irrespective of cost, creed and colour is the responsibility of the state. Volunteer can train and educate , various cultural norms develop tolerance ,introduce new cultural trends among the other groups by contact. <br /> <br />Peace. It helps society ,by removing human right and poverty problems its consequence. Volunteers helps people to come forward to eliminate poverty by self employment or new trades and new technologies.<br />Conclusion.<br /><br /><br />Trained volunteers, helps the people to eliminate poverty by self-employment or new trade and new technologies and bring peace in the universe. <br /><br />NAME. FARZANA PANHWAR.<br />INDUSTRY. THE SINDH RURAL WOMEN’S UP-LIFT GROUP.<br />E-MAIL. farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br />WEBSITE ADDRESS. GOOGLE SEARCH WRITE.FARZANA PANHWAR.<br />MAILING ADDRESS. 157-C.UNIT.NO.2.LATIFABAD.HYDERABAD.<br />SINDH.PAKISTAN.<br />POSTAL CODE. NIL.<br />COUNTRY. PAKISTAN.Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-62944370778253378032007-08-23T02:38:00.000-07:002007-08-23T02:39:09.687-07:00THE ROLE OF NITROGEN FERTILISER IN AGRICULTURE.THE ROLE OF NITROGEN FERTILISER IN AGRICULTURE.<br /><br />Abstract<br />Nitrogen is an important constituent of protein and protoplasm. And essential for the growth of plants. Its shortage leads to chlorosis ( yellow of leaves) and stoppage of growth. Its excess adversely effect the quality of fruit. Its presence in moderate doses is essential for plant growth and fruiting. it is usually deficient in soils. Nitrogen given to plants in the forms organic manure and artificial fertilisers. It is also present in the air but plants can not directly avail of it. The lithosphere and atmospheric content of molecular nitrogen are 18 x 1015 and 3.8 x 10 15 tones . In plant nitrogen lost through leaching, erosion or escape of ammonia or elemental N into the atmosphere.<br /><br />Function of nitrogen (Ref.9)<br />It is a part of protein, important constituent of protoplasm, enzymes, the biological catalytic agents which speed up life processes. Nitrogen is also present as a part of nucleoprotein , amino acids, amines, amino sugar, polypeptides and other organic compounds in plants. In order to prepare a food for plant, plant required chlorophyll, energy of sunlight to form carbohydrates and fats from CO2 and water and nitrogenous compounds. Nitrogen constitutes about 5-6% of soil organic matter by weight. Nitrogen is added to the soil both symbiotic and non-symbiotic fixation from the atmosphere<br /><br />Natural source of N in the soil. (Ref.3)<br />Nitrogen increases the area of the leaf, while potassium increases its efficiency.<br />The maximum up-take of nutrients occurs during the period of most active growth.<br />Ammonium sulfate and sodium nitrate their responses of various crops are different.<br />Ammonium salts in the soil dissolves and take part in cation exchange with soil colloid particle. A proportion of ammonium ions displace from the colloids an equivalent amount of calcium, magnesium and potassium ions, which are absorbed by growing plant. If soil conditions are good the nitrifying organisms will oxidize the ammonium to nitric acid, then immediately dissolve calcium to nitric acid, and then immediately dissolve calcium compounds to produce calcium nitrate. is largely not absorbed directly by the plant is largely absorb by the soil colloids then convert to nitrate.<br /><br />“X” represent negatively charged soil colloid particles,<br />CaX + (NH4)2SO4------cation exchange -----------.(NH4)2X + CaSO4.<br />(NH4)2X----------------nitrification---------2HNO3 + H2X<br />2HNO3 + CaX------------neutralization -------Ca(NO3)2 + H2X .<br /><br />Ammonium salt are not available to the plant until after nitrification in the soil.<br />Phosphate increased the effect of ammonium sulfate slightly and sodium nitrate are markedly. Sodium nitrate is better than ammonium sulfate , except in the presence of phosphorus and potassium or sodium .<br /><br /><br />Form of N utilized by plants.<br />In order to N absorbed by plant. The organic N into inorganic NO3-N called minarlization of N ..In which organic N present in soil by the help of soil-microrganism converted in to ammonia ( ammonification ) and organic N converted in to inorganic NO3-N .The plants takes up N from the soil in the form of NO3- and NH4+ ions, urea as amino acid<br /><br />The N uptake in plant is as under :<br />Nitrate --------------Nitrate reductase ------Nitrite--------Nitrate reductase <br />(NO3) (NO2)<br /><br />Hyponitritie ------------Hyponitrite reducatse -----------Hydroxylamine <br />(HNO) NH2OH<br /><br />Hydroxylamine ------------Hydroxylamine reductase -----------Ammonia <br />(NH2OH) (NH2)<br /><br />Nitrogen is taken up in both cationic (NH4)+ and anionic (NO3-) forms. Nitrogen is used as ammonium fertilizer. Ammonium up take is best low pH , also carbohydrate status of the plant effect on NH4+ uptake. High carbohydrate plants favor high NH4+ uptake through enhancement of ammonia assimilation. Ammonium ion and ammonia are inter-convertible. NH3(aq) + H+ = NH4.Ammonium. Nitrogen shows toxicity at higher pH. Wheat , sugarbeat, rice, tolerate high NH4-N concentration at acid to neutral pH.<br />NH3(aq) could freely diffuse in to it and un-couple photosynthetic photosynthetic phosphorylation.<br />The nitrogen forms which are readily taken up by plants are NH4+ and NO3- ions.<br />The inert atmospheric N2 must be converted to either NH3-N or NO3-N before utilization by plants. N2 + 3H2= 2NH3 ammonium fertilizer produced. The total world biological N fixation to be the order of 17.2 x 107 tones per annum.<br /><br />Two types of microorganisms are involved in biological N2 fixation are:<br />Free living microorganism. ,microorganism living symbiotically with higher plants.<br />Free living N-fixers are :<br />• Azotobacter need pH 6.5 ( Beijerinckia species are aerobic) Clostridium strain<br />• Achromobacter.<br />• Pseudomonas bacteria.<br />• Phototsyntheitic bacteria <br />• Soil fungi.<br />• Blue-green-algae.<br />• All these are anaerobic.<br /><br /><br />Nitrogen fixation by legumes and under field conditions (Ref.9)<br /> <br />Crops N-fixed, Kg/hec/year<br />Alfalfa 261<br />Red clover 163<br />Sweet clover 182<br />Peas 51<br />Soybean 63<br /> <br />Soil bacteria and fungi require nitrogen in their food, most of them utilize the soluble nitrogen compounds like ammonium salts and nitrate present in the soil.<br /><br />Rhizobum forms colonies or nodules on the roots of leguminous plants. The plant provides the organisms with energy in the form of carbohydrate and receives some of the combined nitrogen manufactured by the organism from the atmosphere. It is this association between nitrogen-fixing bacterial and legumes, which help in maintain the soil fertility. The gain of nitrogen from good crop is about 45 Kgs per acre per annum.<br /><br />Azotobacter, clostridium, the non symbiotic N fixation under orchard conditions vary from 0-55 Kg per hectare annually.<br /><br />Azobacter is an organism, is a free-living soil bacteria, they are capable of fixing nitrogen, if they are provided carbohydrate material. The carbohydrate is oxidized and supply energy necessary for the fixation of the atmospheric nitrogen. This nitrogen becomes available to plants after the death and mineralisation of the cells of the free-living organisms and helps to maintain combine nitrogen in the soil.<br /><br />The N-fixing bacterial are photosynthetic one are heterotropic Azobacter and fix about 90kg/ha/annum.Rhizobium species live in association with legumes are very important N2 fixers. It fixes N around 100-400 Kg/N/ha/year. The amount of N2 fixed depend on host condition soil pH, K, Ca, P, Co, Mo, status.<br /><br />Plant obtain their N either by uptake as nitrates and ammonium or by reduction of atmospheric disnitrogen in root nodules of legumes, some other plants ammonia is assimilated in the root, where nitrate reduced in root or exported in the xylem to NO3 reduction sites in the shoot. Nitrogen which is assimilated in the root is converted in to amides , amino acids and ureides: <br />• Effect of N on root growth<br />N supply causes relatively more growth of shoot than roots.(Ref.5)<br />• Effect of N on Carbohydrate utilization<br />Decrease carbohydrate status under high N supply ( Ref.6)<br />• Effect of N on Fruit formation.<br />High N fertilization, grain/straw ratio decreases; under extreme N deficiency . N application increases grain/straw ratio.<br />• Effect of N on Hardiness of plant. ( Ref.7)<br />High nitrogen supply increase the winter hardiness of peach tree.<br />• Effect of N on Maturity Time.<br />Heavy nitrogen application delay the maturity of fruits.<br /><br />Sources of nitrogen. (Ref.2)<br />Ammonium nitrate and urea are the widely used source of nitrogen. The nitrogen application do increase the soil acidity and lime requirement. Low rate of application involveds low quantities of nitrogen required by the tree with large pool of soil nitrogen available.<br /><br />Nitrogen in plant can be classified in to three groups:<br />• Inorganic fraction, in form of NO3- and NH4+.<br />• Low molecular weight organic fraction-contains amino acids, amides and amines, <br />• High molecular weight organic bipolymers, protein and nucleic acids.<br /><br />Conversion of nitrate to ammonia is as under:<br /><br />NO3- -----NO2-------N2O2-2----------NH4OH-------NH3 <br />Nitrate Nitrite Hyponitrite Hydroxylamine ammonium <br /><br /><br />Nitrate reduction found both in roots and upper plant ..Nitrate reductase activity is higher in young meristematic tissue.<br /><br />There are 3 forms of inorganic nitrogen in fertilizers:<br />• Nitrates supply NO3- ions.<br />• Ammonium salts supply NH4+ ions.<br />• Simple amides are not ionized but contain nitrogen. <br />• NH2 (amide) form or forms derived from this group.<br /><br />Different forms of Nitrogen.<br />Nitrogen is present in various forms .These are as under:<br />• Ammonium sulfate<br />• Ammonium nitrate<br />• Sodium nitrate<br />• Calcium nitrate.<br />• Urea .<br /><br />Other forms.<br />• Solids (includes ammonium phosphate)<br />• Solutions.<br /><br />All nitrates are water soluble, their action on crop depends upon the other ions in fertilizer salts, this may be potassium, sodium, calcium or ammonium.<br /><br />Chilean nitrate of soda-contain 16% of nitrate-nitrogen, 26% of sodium. It is water soluble.<br /><br />Chilean potash nitrate-common fertilizer contains 15% N ( all as nitrate), 10%K2O and 20% sodium.<br />Potassium nitrate (KNO3) contains 13.8% N and 36.5% K (about 44% K2O.<br /><br />Calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2,NH4NO3,10H20) which contain 15.5% N<br /><br />Nitrogen materials.<br />Nitrogen may supplied to the soil from any one or more of the following sources.<br />1) Organic.<br /> a) Natural <br /> b) Synthetic <br />2) Inorganic.<br /><br />1) Organic.<br />a) Natural organic material<br />These material include farmyard manure, oil-cake, dried blood, fish manure, green manure, sewage products, castor, neem and other oil cakes, these become N supplier in about week or ten days.<br /> b) Synthetic organic nitrogen.<br /> Material containing synthetic organic N are readily soluble in water .These are:<br /><br />(i) Calcium Cyanamide.<br />Nitrogen combine with calcium carbide to produce calcium cyanamide.<br />CaC2 + N2 = CaCN2 + C (carbon)<br />This is an exothermic reaction produce at ,100C° depending upon the size of unit. Commercial product contains 60% Calcium Cyanamide; the impurities are about 20% lime (CaO), 10% Carbon, which is responsible for dark gray color and small amount of various other substances. It contains 21% N, and is 35% in pure calcium cyanamide.<br />The nitrogen of Calcium cyanamide is not available to plants, unless they pass in to a reaction of the carbonic acid in the soil which converts the calcium cyanamide in to cyanamide to calcium carbonate<br />CaCN2 + H2O + CO2 = H2CN2 + CaCO3<br />The cyanamide is hydrolysed to Ureas.<br />H2CN2 + H2O) = CO(NH2)2<br />Soil bacteria convert urea rapidly in to ammonium carbonate and latter more slowly in to nitrate. Cyanamide may form a polymer called dicyano diamide, H4C2N4 if hydrolysis to urea is impeded or if the biological conversion to urea is slow. Both cynamide and dicyanodiamide are toxic to young plants and nitrifying organisms. If it is used on soil ,it kills most of micro organism and is used as weed killer. Calcium cyanamide contains calcium hydroxide so it should not used with ammonium sulfate.<br /><br />Calcium cynamide ------H2O- ----------Urea –Hydrolysis.----------------NH4 + CO2<br /><br />It is CaCN2 with 21-22% N is hydrolysed in soil to form urea. It is used as weed killer. Cyanamide decomposes in the soil to form ammonium nitrogen .Cynamide contain lime but it whould not make soil acidic. <br /><br />(ii) Urea <br />It contains 46% N. Urea is highly soluble in water and readily absorbd through the leaves<br />It has chemical formula CO(NH2)2 it is called carbamide. In soil urea readily converted by an enzyme urease to ammonium carbonate, which is unstable and release free ammonia.<br />It is very soluble and until converted to ammonium compounds through hydrolysis by the enzyme urease. It is just as mobile as nitrate. Commercial urea may contain traces of an impurities (biuret) which damages germination of crops. Pure urea contains 1.5% biuret. Urea free from biuret gives good crop, but suffer two disadvantages.<br /><br />Rapid decomposition in the soil or on the soil surface.<br />Free ammonia is formed, this reduce the efficiency of urea. This ammonia damage germinating seeds. Urea is more effective when contain nitrate.<br /><br />(iii) Liquid ammonia<br />Liquefied ammonia is new generation of nitrogen fertilizer.<br />.<br />(iv) Urea and urea-form compounds. <br />It is produced when heating a mixture of anhydrous ammonia and carbon dioxide at high pressure. Urea contain 46.7% Nitrogen, and is readily converted in the soil to nitrate, without leaving any harmful effects.<br /><br />Biuret (NH2.CO.NH.CO.NH2) which occurs in urea as impurity is toxic to fruit crops. Urea should not contain more than 0.25% Biuret.<br /><br />2) Inorganic sources.<br /><br />(i) Chilean nitrate of soda or saltperes.<br />Its compositions is: <br /><br />NaCO3 + 2HNO3 ---------- 2NaNO3 + CO2 +H2O<br /><br />Sodium nitrate shows neutral effect on soil, some impurities like saltpetre or the chilean nitrate of soda is present in a granular form:<br />. <br />(ii) Ammonium Salts.<br />All ammonium salts used as fertilizer are water soluble and nitrified quickly in slightly acidic and neutral soil to form nitrate. Their effects are as under.<br /> <br />Ammonium sulfate –contain 21%Nitrogen. Due to non-hydgroscopic properties, it is make easy to handle , than nitrates or urea.<br />Ammonium chloride Contains - 26% Nitrogen, a cheap source of by-product hydrochloric acid.<br /><br />(iii) Ammonium Nitrates.<br />It contain ammonium and nitrate, these are water soluble.<br />Ammonium nitrates- contains 35%N.<br />Nitro-chalk-contains enough limestone and it does not make soil acidic.<br />Ammonium nitrate-sulfate-contains 26%N<br />It supplies both nitrate and ammonical N. It is dangerous in case of fire of its explosive nature. This fertilizer contains almost double the quantity of N as contained by sodium nitrate.<br /><br />(iv) Calcium ammonium nitrate.<br />This material is obtained by mixing of ammonium nitrate with precipitated calcium carbonate. <br /><br />(v) Ammonium and nitrate.<br />Nitrate, nitrate application if followed by rain then nitrate leaches out. In different soils both ammonium and nitrate show difference. On calcareous soil nitrates give better results than ammonium salt. Nitrate salts are safer.<br /><br />(vi) Ammonia Nitrate. <br />Nitric acid is produced by passing ammonia from reaction, mixed with air over platinum catalyst.<br />NH3 + 2O2 (oxygen) = H2O + HNO3<br />If nitric acid is neutralized by more ammonia, ammonium nitrate is formed.<br />HNO3 + NH3 = NH4NO3 <br />Ammonium nitrate is very attractive form of fertilizer salts it contains 35% nitrogen half as the ammonium and half as the nitrate radical. Ammonium nitrate could be used as nitro-chalk, which contain 16% nitrogen. This product is granular and easy to handle.<br /><br />(vii) Ammonium Phosphate.<br />It is mono-ammonium phosphate ( NH4.H2.PO4) and is completely soluble in water. It contains 12.2% N and 61.7% P2O5.It can be manufactured by adding the correct amount of ammonia to Phosphoric acid or rock phosphate treated with sulfuric acid and ammonium sulfate, like <br />Ca3(PO4)2 + (NH4)2 SO4 + 2H2SO4 = 2NH4.H2PO4 + 3CaSO4.<br />Calcium sulfate is removed by filtration and solution of ammonium phosphate is concentrated.<br />Di-ammonium phosphate (NH4)2 P2O5 is also manufactured and used alone or mixed with fertilizer. It is easily soluble in water, but it has higher N to P2O5 ratio, containing 21.2%N and 53.8%P2O5.<br /> <br />(viii) Ammonium sulfate <br />By-products are coal containing 1-2% Nitrogen and 0.5-4% sulfur. The sulfur is present mainly sulfide and calcium sulfate. but as a constituents of organic compounds drive from the original plants and are produced by the action of sulfur bacteria.<br /><br />When coal burns nitrogen begins to come off as ammonia at a temperature of 300C to 400C. A substantial amount of ammonia is obtained during the gasification of cake by air and steam. Ammonia is also by-product of oil-refining and Shale-distillation plants. Crude gas from the coal is used to remove tar, hydrogen sulfide and oil. The aqueous liquor is obtained by the proves of distilled and free ammonia from ammonium salts. The liberated ammonia gas is mixed with sulfuric acid in saturator and crystal of ammonium sulfate are separated in a centrifuge. About 1/5th of nitrogen is used to recovered 22-23 Ib. of ammonium sulfate from 1 ton of coal.<br />It is soluble in water and used for mixed fertilizer and top dressing material. Ammonium sulfate continuos use make the soil acidic , so lime is recommended on the soil.<br /><br />(ix) Ammonium Sulfate Nitrate.<br />It is produced both in crystalline or granular form. It contain ammonical and nitrate.N in 3:1 ratio. Application of this salt produce acidity. <br /><br />(x) Calcium Nitrate.<br />It is soluble in water, nitrogen in form of nitrate is immediately available to the plant. The anhydrous salts Ca(NO3)2 contain 17.1% nitrogen. Calcium nitrate is made by dissolving limestone in nitric acid. In the manufacture of soluble phosphate calcium nitrate is obtained as by –product.<br />Nitrate has been produced by nitrification of organic matter on higher ground and gradually transferred in solution with other salts to the lower area in height where it has crystallized under the hot dry conditions of the higher plain.<br />The sodium nitrate the calcite contains large quantity of Sodium chloride, little sodium iodate and substantial quantities of sulfate of sodium, potassium and magnesium .Sodium nitrate is very soluble. Sodium nitrate contains high percentage of oxygen.<br /><br /> (xi) Potassium Nitrate.<br />Several methods based upon the different solubility of sodium and potassium nitrate are employed to produce Chileans potash nitrate, Chileans potash nitrate contains various composition, it contain 10% K2O and 15% N.<br /><br />Other Principal sources of inorganic materials used as sources of Nitrogen.<br /><br />Name of material Compound formula N%<br />Anhydrous ammonia NH3 82<br />Ammonia solution NH4OH 20<br />Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 20.5<br />Ammonium sulfate nitrate (NH4)SO4.NO2 26.0<br />Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 33.5<br />Ammonium Phosphate 40% (NH4)2H2PO4 40<br />Sulfate 60% (NH4)2SO4 16<br />Sodium nitrate NaNO3 16<br />Potassium nitrate KNO3 13<br />Calcium ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 + CaCO3 25<br />Calcium cynamide CaCN2 21<br />Urea NH2CONH3 46<br />Castor Pomace 5.5<br />Karanj cake 3.9<br />Mahua cake 2.5<br />Neem cake 5.2<br />Farmyard manure 0.5-1.5<br />Dried blood 12-14<br />Slaughter house waste 6-10<br />Meat meal 5-10<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Characteristic of commonly available source of nitrogen (Ref.2)<br /><br />Sources Percent nitrogen Pound per 1 Ib N Acidity or Basicity <br />( IbCaCO3)Ib of N Acidity Acidity or Basicity <br />( IbCaCO3)Ib of N Basicity. <br />Ammonia , anhydrous 82 1.22 1.8 -<br />Ammonia, aqua 20 5.00 1.8 -<br />Ammonium nitrate 33.5 2.98 1.8 -<br />Ammonium polyphosphate 12 8.33 4.1 -<br />Ammonium sulfate 20.5 4.88 5.4 -<br />Calcium nitrate 15.5 6.45 - 1.3<br />Di-ammonium phosphate 16-18 5.56 4.1 -<br />Mono-ammonium phosphate 11 9.09 5.3 -<br />Potassium nitrate 13 7.69 - 2.0<br />Sodium nitrate 16 6.25 - 1.8<br />Urea 45 2.22 1.6 -<br />Nitrogen solution Variable - - -<br /><br />Nitrogen solutions may consist of mixtures of urea plus ammonium nitrate, aqua ammonia or anhydrous ammonia.<br /><br />Various forms of Nitrogen fertilizers.<br />• Nitro-chalk- It is a mixture of ammonium nitrate + lime.<br />• Nitram – Straight ammonium nitrate.<br />• Aqueous ammonia.<br />• Anhydrous ammonia<br />• Isobutylidene dirurea – Acts as quickly as ammonium nitrate , but it is inferior than it ammonium nitrate.<br />• Sulfur-coated urea- In which urea is converted to ammonia by nitrification .The organic fertilizer are more expensive than inorganic fertilizers.<br /><br />Comparison of nitrogen fertilizer.<br />A kilo gram of nitrogen shows same effect on crop, whether used ammonium sulfate, or ammonium nitrate ,supplied alone or in a mixture with lime or as “Nitrate of soda “ or “potassium nitrate . <br />The choice of material is based in following things:<br /> The price charged for 1 kg of nitrogen.<br /> The efficiency of each fertilizer for particular crops and soils.<br /> Ease of storage, handling and distribution.<br /> Whether the fertilizer causes loss of lime from the soil.<br /> In case of wheat the application of nitrogen, when the crop is heading ,gives a flour that is high in protein and superior baking quantities . Same effect on oats is also found protein content in oat increases by the use of nitrogen fertilizer. In Barley nitrogen fertilizer is carefully applied as , it need high starch for malting purpose.<br /> In case of root crops excess nitrogen reduces the percentage of dry matter. In case of sugar cane nitrogen fertilizer increases the sugar as well as the yield.<br /> In case of cereals excessive amount of nitrogen bring too much leaf, late and un-even ripening, fungus attack and lodging of weak stems. <br /> Some legumes plants roots contain nodules, which contain nitrogen-fixing organisms.<br /> In legumes N application depresses yields due to inhibition of N fixation by fertilizer N<br /> The N added to the soil from atmosphere through rain water and biological agencies such as N-fixing bacteria.<br /> Alkaline soil favor ammonia and acid conditions nitrate up-take under low pH. The application of ammonical N can alter the cation sorbing capacity of root system.<br /> NH4 + nutrition differs from NO3- nutrition in 3 ways:<br /> The demand for oxygen to the roots is increased with NH4+ nutrition.<br /> In case of NH4+ nutrition the competition for the absorption of other cations is increases and this may be harmful for plant growth.<br /> There may be indirect effects due to change in pH of the medium.<br /><br />Soil acidification<br />• Ammonium sulfate make the soil acid. Roughly 1 Kg of ground limestone is lost for every Kg of ammonium sulfate used. So lime must be added to keep the soil neutral.<br />• Ammonium chloride, ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphate, urea, anhydrous ammonia and nitrogen all make the soil acidic, because they form nitrate in the soil. If it leaches down it removes equivalent lime. Nitrate fertilizer do not make soil acidic.<br /><br />Liquid nitrogen fertilizers ( Ref.4)<br />• Anhydrous ammonia –contains 82% N<br />• Aqua ammonia – contain 21-29 %N<br />• Nitrogen soluble fertilizer . Are ammonium nitrate and urea, Ammonia about 82 %N.<br />• Liquid mixed fertilizer are also called gas liquor. It contain 1-4% nitrogen usually ammonium carbonate or ammonium chloride.<br />• Ammonia even in diluted aqueous solutions is unsuitable for top dressing grassland, it damages the crop and retards growth, and some ammonia is lost in the air.<br />• After new trees are planted an application of 15-25 liters per tree of water soluble fertilizer solution like 20-20-20 mixed in 500 liters of water. After leafing in the first season it should be 75-100mgs of ammonium per tree. In second season nitrogen applied at the rate of 100 g per tree, and . 20-25 Kgs of actual nitrogen per acre are sufficient. Leaf analysis of plants are used to know subsequent nitrogen requirement . (Ref.1)<br />• The Cheaper methods of fixing nitrogen are to be found. The soluble combination is fixing nitrogen with carbides or with hydrogen. The former leads to production of calcium cynamide and later amounts to the synthesis of ammonia. The other methods are : nitrogen may be produced from liquid air and hydrogen by electrolysis of water or both gases may be obtained from natural gas or from the gasification of cake or oil with steam.<br /><br />Solutions of nitrogen compounds.<br />• Most commonly used are ammonium sulfate or ammonium nitrate. One method is treat super-phosphate with waste ammonia liquor to obtain ammoniated super phosphate. This way ammonia is neutralized without using sulfuric acid in the method of making by-product ammonium sulfate .Solution of urea or ammonium nitrate in a ammonia are also applied to mixed fertilizers. One such solution containing 41% Nitrogen, 65 parts ammonium nitrate and 22 parts anhydrous ammonia in 13 parts of water. For direct application to the soil ammonium nitrate solutions or liquid anhydrous ammonia is used. Anhydrous ammonia is the cheapest form of nitrogen.<br /><br />Timing of Nitrogen application (Ref. 11)<br />• Adequate N is needed at the time of flowering and fruit set and is strongly conditioned by season .In summer application both soil and spray, resulting poor fruit quality.<br />• The highest rate of N application results in to doubling of tree dry weight and increasing in the dry matter percentage of all tissue.<br />• It is found that 1.36 kg of N annually ( half from a concentrated fertilizer, half from manure ) with winter cover crops results in highest yield and fruit size per tree <br />• Iron and Cu content rises with increase in N fertiliser. ( Ref.11)<br /><br />N-deficiency symptoms<br />• The tops, shoots, and roots of N. deficiency are stunted. The shoots are usually upright and spindly stunted..The leaves become small, and pale yellow. There is dieback of twigs and gradual defoliation, which result in thin, brushy appearance of tops, and fruit size is reduced.<br />• Deficiency of nitrogen revealed by paleness of color in the leaves and general stunting growth. The yellow pigment carotene, which is animal converted to vitamin A.<br />• Nitrogen deficiency associated with anthrocyain pigmenting. N deficiency plant mature earlier and vegetative growth phase is terminated early.<br />• Young leave show strong sink of N, which contain high amount of N15 and NH4-N,.When nitrogen deficiency occour the older leaves feed young leaves so N deficiency symptoms first appear on old leaves. Soil N depends upon the soil type, temperature and rain fall<br />• The availability of N contained in the fertilizer depends upon the form of N contained by the material. Leaching is directly proportional to the degree of N in a material. So nitrate-N has greater tendency to leach than the ammonia-N<br />• In general, 10% increase or reduction in nitrogen application is usually reflected as 0.1% change in leaf nitrogen content. Spreading the fertilizer under the trees in a rings or bands or over the weed free strips along the tree rows is more efficient. Required 1/3rd or ½ half the amount of material needed in broadcasting over the entire orchard floor (Ref.1)<br />• The enzyme nitrate reductase, molybdenum (Mo) had been found to be a constituent of enzyme so in Mo-deficent plant nitrate reduction fails to take place and plants suffer N deficiency.<br />• Nitrogen is a constituent of protein and chlorophyll with protein they form protoplasm, which are the active centers of metabolism, less active protein store in chlorophyll, which absorb light and carbon dioxide presence produce various carbon compounds. The dry matter of plant contains from less than 1 and more than 5% of nitrogen, but it also depend upon the stage of plant and amount of nitrogen available to it. The plant use atmospheric free nitrogen and into a combined form. This nitrogen then become available to the plants.<br />• Nitrogen is a constituent of protein, nucleic acid (DNA and RNA), chlorophyll, many co-enzymes ATP, NAD, alkaloids and many other classes of compounds. The major effect of nitrogen deficiency is impaired protein synthesis and growth. Its deficiency symptom is chlorosis due to reduced synthesis of chlorophyll.<br />• Plants take up both ammonium and nitrate ions. Soil ammonium-N converted in to nitrate by the help of microbial action.<br />• The oxidation of organic material in the soil produce small amount of nitrogen.<br />• Nitrogen fertilizer is one of the basic mineral element required by the plants to provide high yield ( Ref. 12)<br /><br />Health of crop .(Ref.8)<br />• Rhizoctonia Solani of bean plant lowered by increase N supply through organic source.<br />• (Ref.9.) This way the decomposition of organic matter led to high soil CO2 concentration to which the strains of R.Solani were susceptibale )<br />• More nitrogen, increases the relative humidity around the plants and increase infection by airborne diseases, like mildew and rust. In apple high amount of N increase the incidence of fire blight.<br />• Reduction in N supply results in poor vegetative growth but increased fruitfulness.<br />• The atmosphere contains ammonia and oxides of nitrogen. The oxide of nitrogen are produced by degradation of the protein of the earth.<br />• The proportion of ammonia nitrogen tends to be greater in summer than in winter .Nitrate nitrogen is highest after thunderstorms.<br />• The amount of nitrogen contained in a crop reachesto between 50 and 200Ibs per acre.<br />• Urea spray inhibites the germination of bean rust spores and minimizes disease incidence<br />• Soil rich in organic matter requires less amount of nitrogen than other soils for maximizing crop production.<br />• Tree vigor has direct relationship with nitrogen status. The excess nitrogen in fruit crops affects fruit color, firmness and storage quality. In order to check nitrogen fertilizer requirements various factors are need to be consideres. The nitrogen requirement of mature trees can be considered to be proportional to the amount of structural wood contained in trunks, scoif fold limbs and large roots. Different soils have different capacity of fertilizer nitrogen availability. The efficiency of nitrogen in various soils varies 55-80%.<br />• The amount of nitrogen fertilizer requirement effect by the presence of soil moisture and competition of the ground cover for nitrogen (Ref.1)<br />• Sodium nitrate prevented by the application of gypsum and ammonium sulfate were eliminated by lime stone.<br />• Combined use of NO3-N and ammonium-N brings better results<br />• (NH4)2SO4 shows better results than NH4NO3 ,Ammonium-N reduces the soil pH .It interferes with uptake of some other cations especially Mg.<br />• For normal growth plants require from 2-55 N in their dry matter. High nitrogen fertilizer use may impair product quality.<br />• Soils of humid and pre-humid regions containes more N than those from the arid or semiarid areas.<br />• Adequate P and K levels tend to boost up the crop response to N <br />• (Ref..14. )<br />• Oxides of N are formed in the atmosphere by lightening which is washed down to the soil with the help of rainwater.<br />• Nitrogen concentration decrease with Ca deficiency. Addition of either N or a Ca salt increase N concentration.<br />• The slow release N fertilizer are : urea, formaldeyhyde ,Isobutylidene diurea etc.<br />• ( Ref.8) . <br />• The nitrogenous fertilizers supply N to either NO3- or NH4+ form. The performance of crop under ammonium and nitrate nitrogen remains the same in most soils.<br /><br />Conclusion.<br />Nitrogen is an important constituent of protein and protoplasm. Essential for growth of plants. Nitrogen in plant can be classified in to three groups:<br />a) Inorganic fraction, in form of NO3- and NH4+.<br />b) Low molecular weight organic fraction-contains amino acids, amides and amines, <br />c) High molecular weight organic bipolymers. Protein and nucleic acids.<br />d) Conversion of nitrate to ammonia is as under:<br />NO3- -----NO2-------N2O2-2----------NH4OH-------NH3<br /><br /><br />Inorganic nitrogen Sources<br />Calcium cynamide; urea; Chilean nitrate of soda or saltpets, ammonium nitrate; ammonium phosphate; ammonium sulfate; ammonium sulfate nitrate; calcium nitrate; potassium nitrate. <br />Ammonia, anhydrous contain 82% N; urea contains 45%N; ammonium nitrate contains 33.5% N. Nitrogen also fixed by legumes like : alfalfa; red clover; sweet clover; peas; soybean. Rhizobium and Azotobacter Clostridium are capable of fixing nitrogen and supplying atmospheric N to the plants. <br />Nitrogen deficiency effects on photosynthesis, so leaves turn yellow, it also effects on root growth, carbohydrate utilization, fruit firmness, hardness of plants, maturity time, diseases incidence.<br />In order to remove N deficiency the consideration of soil, pH and time of application is need to be considered.<br /><br />References.<br />(Ref. 1. Warren C.Stites and W.Shaw Reid, Orchard Nutrition Management; Information bulletin 210; Cornell Cooperative Extension. )<br />( Ref. 2 Delwiche, 1970 , Scientific Amer; 71-80pp)<br />(Ref. 2: Warren C. Stiles and W.Shaw Reid; Orchard Nutition Management; Information bulletin 219. Cornell cooperative extension; 23p)<br /> (Ref. 2: Warren C. Stiles and W.Shaw Reid; Orchard Nutition Management; Information<br />( Ref:3. Dr.G.W.Cooke .C.B.E.”Fertilizing for maximum yield; 2nd edition; The English<br />(Ref. Gibbs and Calo 1959. Plant physiologhy; 34:318-23.<br />(Ref.3. A .M.Smith; Manual and Fertilizers; Revised edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd; 1961; 275pp)<br />( Ref. 4 .A .M.Smith; Manual and Fertilizers; Revised edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd; 1961; 275pp)Language Book society, 1975, 297p).<br />(Ref:5, Black.C.A.1954.Soil –plant relationship (Monographs) Iowa State College,<br />(Ref.5. Meyer and Storck (1927) Holt and Fisher (19600-, Meyer and Storck (1027) Zeischr, Pfanzenernahr. Dung Bodenk, 10 A. 329-47 <br />Holt, E.C and Fisher, F.L.(1960) Agron.J 52:593-6<br />( Ref.6. Gibbs and Calo 1959. Plant<br />(Ref.6. Hasegawa et.al; 1962) Nishikwa, k.I; Kogasaki; M and Suzuki, S. (1962) Sci. Rept; Hygo Univ. Agr. Ser. Agr; 5(2) :74-6ulletin 219. Cornell cooperative extension; (Ref.7. Higging et.al; 1943; Walton, G.P.and Skinner j.J.(1943) Georgia Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull. 226p)3p) <br />( Ref.7. Higging et.al; 1943; Walton, G.P.and Skinner j.J.(1943) Georgia Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull. 226p)<br />( Ref.8 .T.K.Bose; S.K.Mitra; M.K.Sadhu, mineral nutrion of fruit crops . Naya Prokash, Calculta six.1988; 773P)<br />(Ref. 8 Gartner, 1969, Queenst. J. Agric.Anim.Sci; 26:365-72.)<br />(Ref.9. Davey and Papavizas 1960.Phytopathology, 50: 522-5. This way the decompostion of organic matter led to high soil CO2 concentration to which the strains (Ref.9 Gartner, 1969, Queenst. J. Agric.Anim.Sci; 26:365-72.)f R.Solani were susceptibale )<br />(Ref:9, Black.C.A.1954.Soil –plant relationship (Monographs) Iowa State College, Ames.<br />(Ref.9. Davey and Papavizas 1960.Phytopathology, 50: 522-5.<br />(Ref.10. Bould, C.1963.Mineral nutrition of plant in soils. In: plant physiology. A Tretise, V3, chap 1, part 1F.C.Steward. Ed.Academic Press, new york. )<br />(Ref.10. Bould, C.1963.Mineral nutrition of plant in soils. In: plant physiology. A Tretise, V3, chap 1, part 1F.C.Steward. Ed.Academic Press, new york. )<br />( Ref.11) G.S. Nijjar; Nutrition of fruit trees, Kalyani publisher , New Delhi, 1982, 320p ) ( Ref: Dr.G.W.Cooke .C.B.E.”Fertilizing for maximum yield; 2nd edition; The English Language Book society, 1975, 297p)<br />( Ref. 12: D.A.Koren, Kov; Nitrogen fertilizers, Oxonian Press .Pvt.Ltd, 1983,309p.)<br />(Ref..14. Gartner, 1969, Queenst. J. Agric.Anim.Sci; 26:365-72.)<br /><br /><br />Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br /> farzanapanhwar@yahoo.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-85578031406456837322007-08-23T02:37:00.000-07:002007-08-23T02:38:03.982-07:00THE ROLE OF ANTIBIOTICS, AND HORMONES IN CHICKEN RAISING, AND ITS EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH, AFTER CONSUMING SUCH MEAT.THE ROLE OF ANTIBIOTICS, AND HORMONES IN CHICKEN RAISING, AND ITS EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH, AFTER CONSUMING SUCH MEAT.<br /><br />In order to protects chicken from various diseases, the farmer must use the antibiotic and steroids, at the same time there is a pressure to fatten and make them mature quickly in order to feed the growing population, but the effects of antibodies and hormones are shown as under:<br /><br /> Two nitrofurans (furazolidone and nitro-furazone) use as an antibiotic to chicken (are use to treat illness and promote growth) hormone used to fatten and promote growth, steroids to built-up bulk and weight, tranquillisers for anti-stress. These cause health risk or cancer due to easily pass from chicken meat to human. <br /> <br /> The anabolic steroids (hormones) use to promote growth in animal, while estradiol, testosterone, progesterone and synthetic zeranol and trenbalone. Zeranol is a mixture of trenbalone and estratiol both hormones helps conversion of feed into muscle by up-to 20% and meat show low fat. <br /> <br /> Estrogen is an endocrine disrupter, they can cross placental barriers and may produce effect if any body consume such food. <br /> <br /> Kichard M. Sharpe, research physiologist with the Medical Research Council Edinburg, the body hormonal balance, like early puberty, lowered sperm count or it could behaviour changes to motor, intellectual and immune system impairment. <br /> <br /> Use of penicillin family cause allergic reactions, neomycin, gentamicin, streptomycin, can cause deafness, tetracycline worsen kidney disease, Trimethoprim is dangerous for pregnant or people with impaired kidney function. <br /> <br /> Use of fluoraquinolones antibiotic use in chicken but poultry causes resistant to camplyobacter bacteria, this resistant bacteria could be pass to human. <br /><br />Conclusion.<br /><br />Due to getting health problems by consuming such meat farmers are trying to switch back to old tradition, which is an organic farming, although it needed more labourer and cost more in the market, but health conscious consumer are ready to pay premium prices for organic food, which is environmentally safe and sound method of production. <br /><br />Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs)<br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-22145371793761193042007-08-23T02:36:00.000-07:002007-08-23T02:37:15.244-07:00THE ACTIVE ROLE OF FORESTRY IN VARIOUS SECTORS, AND ITS FUTURE PLANNING IN SINDH-PAKISTAN.THE ACTIVE ROLE OF FORESTRY IN VARIOUS SECTORS, AND ITS FUTURE PLANNING IN SINDH-PAKISTAN.<br /><br />Abstract. <br /><br />The province of Sindh lying between 23° 40” to 28° 38’N and 66° 40’ to 71° 30’E. The region have subtropical climate receiving between 100-550 chill units and 3700-4500 heat units. Annual mean evaporation is 79 inches, 9.72 daily sunshine hours, 7.1 inch rainfall, maximum temperature is 93.37°F, minimum temperature 67.56°F, mean temperature is 78.41°F, relative humidity is 57.50 and Dew point is 58.33°F. The Sindh soil is silty-loam, is extremely suitable for forestry and agro-forestry and its industry. <br /><br />In Sindh 345 hectare are under coastal forest, which is consist of mangroves, while the second major forest area 241 hectares comes under riverain forest. In the riverain area, when this land becomes flooded, then the moisture in the soil remain for some times, which provide feed the roots of forest. This water also helps in spreading the seeds to the far areas, this way forest covers to many hectares of lands but the drawback we have that our forest area is very thinly populated, while with little effort we can change the shape of forest in our areas and convert this land in to a thick forest and not only earn money but provide clean and suitable land in the universe.<br /><br />Introduction. <br /><br /> In the year 1999-00, the agriculture sector in Sindh was 167,584 million, in which forestry share in Sindh was 456 million. Percent share of forestry in agriculture in Sindh was 0.27%. Percent share of forestry in GDP in Sindh was 0.07%.<br /> <br /> Total area of forests and range lands under the control of forest department in Sindh for the year 1999-00 was 1,048 hectares in which: The area under reserved forests was 292 hectares. The area under protected forests was 726 hectares. The area under un-classified forests was 25 hectares. The area under resumed land was 5 hectares. <br /> <br /> In year 1990-00 Sindh the total 678 hectares were under the control of forest department, which have following types of vegetation. One hectare was under coniferous forest, 81 hectare under irrigated plantation; 241 hectare under riverain forest; 10% under scrub forest, while 345 hectares were under coastal forest. <br /> <br /> In the year 1997-98, the area under afforestation in Sindh was 2.8 hectares while 11.5 hectares was under Regeneration process. <br /> <br /> In 1999-00, the 868,000 cubic meters was the major forest products of Pakistan, out of which 425,000 cubic meter was Timber and 443,000 cubic meters was firewood.<br /> <br /> 4-7 kg/ha of nitrogen, 0.3-0.6 kg/ha of phosphorus and 1-5 kg/ha of potassium, 3-9 kg/ha of calcium is required to produce one ton of forest, in Sindh.<br /> In Sindh the woods are cut for fuel and building material, cleared for agriculture and subject in attrition from grazing domestic animals. This resulted into deforestation, which effects are explain as under:<br /><br />Effect of deforestation.<br /><br /> Pole-ward relocation of populations barred by deforested area.<br /> <br /> Transfer of carbon stocks from vegetation to atmosphere, increasing greenhouse effect. <br /> <br /> Altered flux to atmosphere of greenhouse gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide from deforested areas.<br /> <br /> Decreased transpiration and altered albedo, contributing to climatic change. <br /> <br /> Increased pressure on forested land for agriculture use.<br /> <br /> Severe erosion in the land. <br /> <br /> Loss of wildlife habitat. <br /><br />In Sindh forest plants are used for the collection of gum, resin and essential oil, these are also used to control sodicity and soil salinity, also play a great role in timber and non-timber forest products are explain as under:<br /><br />The plant used for gum, resins and essential oils. <br /><br />The plans used as gum.<br /><br /> Acacia senegal.<br /> Acacia albida.<br /> Acacia dudgeoni.<br /> Acacia farnesiana.<br /> Acacia hockii.<br /> Acacia polycautha.<br /> Acacia nilotica.<br /> Albizia zygia.<br /> Albizia adianthifolia.<br /> Anogeisus leiocarpus.<br /> Burkea africana.<br /> Balanites aegyptica.<br /> Combretum nigricans.<br /> Colagigantea.<br /> Dialium guineensis.<br /> Diospyrus mespiliformis.<br /> Entada africana.<br /> Entando fragma spp.<br /> Hidegardia barteri.<br /> Piptademiasturm africanum.<br /> Spondias setigera.<br /> Stercula tragalcantha<br /> Stercula adianthifolia.<br /><br />Tree exudsates. <br /><br /> Acacia -------------------------gum aratic.<br /> Astragalus ---------------------gum tragacanth.<br /> Sterculia urens----------------- gum Karaya.<br /> Anogeissus latifolia------------ gum ghatti.<br /><br />Plant extracts.<br /><br /> Peel of various fruit .---------- Pectin.<br /><br />Seed and root gums. <br /><br /> Cyamopsis teragonoloba.----------Guargum.<br /> Ceratonia siliqua.-------------------Carob bean gum. <br /> Cesalpina spinosa-------------------Tara gum.<br /> Amorphosphallus Konjac.----------Konjac mannan.<br /><br />The plants used as Resins.<br /><br /> Allanblackia parviflora.<br /> Amphimas peterocarpoidas.<br /> Berlinia grandiflora.<br /> Copaifera salikounda.<br /> Carpapa procera.<br /> Ceiba pentandra.<br /> Daniellie thurifera.<br /> Garcinia Kola.<br /> Nauclea latifolia.<br /> Pseudospondias microcarpa.<br /> Pterocarpus ernaceus.<br /> Tetraplaura tetraptera.<br /> Zanthoxylum Xanthoxyloides.<br /><br /><br />Essential oils.<br /><br /> Ocimum gratissimum.<br /> Piper guineensis.<br /><br />Tolerance of forest species to soil sodicity and salinity plant used to:<br /><br />Control soil sodicity.<br /><br /> Acacia nilotica.<br /> Acacia auriculae formis.<br /> Azadirachta Indica. <br /> Albizia procera.<br /> Albizia lebbek.<br /> Ailanthus excelsa.<br /> Butea monosperma. <br /> Capparis decidua.<br /> Capparis horrida.<br /> Casuarina equisetifolia.<br /> Dalbergia sissoo.<br /> Leucaena leucocephala.<br /> Prosopis juliflora.<br /> Pongamia pinnata.<br /> Phyllanthus emblica.<br /> Populus deltoides.<br /> Syzgium cuminii.<br /> Terminalia arjuna.<br /> Tamarindus indica.<br /><br />Plants used to control soil salinity.<br /><br /> Avicennia maritina.<br /> Atriplex species.<br /> Acacia nilotica.<br /> Acacia tortilis.<br /> Azadirachta Indica. <br /> Acacia auriculaeformis.<br /> Albizzia lebbek.<br /> Casuarina equisetifolia.<br /> Cassia siamea.<br /> Dalbergia sissoo.<br /> Eucalyptus camaldulensis. <br /> Eucalyptus tereticornis.<br /> Leucaena leucocephala.<br /> Prosopis juliflora. <br /> Parkinsonia aculeata. <br /> Pongamia pinnata.<br /> Rhizophora species.<br /> Salvadora persica.<br /> Salvadora Oleoides.<br /> Tamarix articuta.<br /><br />Role of woody species, timber and non-timber forest products. <br /><br /> Dry timber for wood fuel and charcoal.<br /> <br /> Building timber for house fencing and thatching.<br /> <br /> Food for livestock particularly in the dry season.<br /> <br /> Wild food and fruits for the people. <br /> <br /> Use of gums, resins for food, medicinal and cultural uses as well as for trade. <br /> <br /> Veterinary medicines for a variety of livestock diseases.<br /> <br /> Human medicines for a variety of diseases. <br /> <br /> Making of household utensils. <br /> <br /> Act as purifier for CO2 and soil erosion control.<br /> <br /> It helps to reduce green house gases.<br /> <br /> It used as ethno-medicine human, fodder, food, fuel wood, craft and many other purposes. <br /> <br /> Environment protection, fertility, erosion and wind break.<br /> <br /> Fodder and fuel wood purposes.<br /> <br /> In many places secondary forest becomes a desirable habitat for suburban houses.<br /> <br /> Forest provide habitats for many kind of organisms, not only of species of vegetation but also of animals, fungi, and bacteria. <br /> <br /> Wood not use as lumber but also used as mine timber, railway sleepers or ties, posts, poles, fencing and various minor products such as cork, waxes, nuts, resins and bark, while the uses of converted wood are dominated by the practice of converting wood to pulp to make paper.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Forest uses.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Future of forestry in Sindh.<br /><br />The future of forestry in Sindh will be based on the properly, scientifically, follow-up of following steps:<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />p<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />In future co-operation is needed in-situ and ex-situ methods to conserve the genetic diversity, exchange of reproductive material and monitoring of progress in these fields. Regular exchange of information, long term conservation strategies and methodologies, exchange of genetic material, literature on field trials and collection. <br /><br />More information and their priorities are explain as under:<br /><br />Forest policy and legislation. Environment and nature protection.<br /> Criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management.<br />Sustainable forest management. Bio-diversity and gene resources.<br /> Eco-system management.<br />Forest economics. System of selling wood.<br /> Proper investment strategies.<br />Information management. Statistical system of information.<br /> Collection of database.<br />Strengthening the institutional frame work. Government forestry.<br /> Private forestry.<br />Public awareness. Forestry in policy circle.<br /><br />Maintenance, conservation of biological diversity in forest eco-system. <br /><br /> To provide a legal/regulatory framework, so it should:<br /> <br />• Clarifies the concept of management, conservation and sustainable development of forest.<br /><br /> To provide capacity building of an institutional framework:<br /> <br />• To provide maintenance and conservation and appropriately enhance biological diversity at the eco-system, species and genetic material.<br /> <br />• To identify economic value in forests, where management is helping in maintaining and control of biological diversity. <br /><br /> To provide economic policies framework and financial instrument which help in:<br /> <br />• Developing new resources and incentives to enhance the mechanisms for predicting impacts of human intervention on forests.<br /> <br />• Supports economic value in forests, so its management can help in maintaining the biological diversity.<br /><br /> To help in developing the informational means to implement the policy framework this helps. <br />• In developing a new inventories and ecological impact assessment on biological diversity.<br /> <br />• To develop a tools to assess the effect of forest management on biological diversity.<br /><br /><br />Conclusion.<br /><br />Measurement that show correlation between climate change and forest growth have attributed to the effect of rain and other forms of pollution. We have to half destruction of forests, especially high bio-mass forests like tropical rain forest and conifer forest. Forest destruction contribute 1/5th carbon to the atmosphere as fossil fuel use and deforestation rates are rising rapidly. Up to some extent methane release can be diminish by protecting forests and reduce dependency on fossil fuels. Forest trees and forest soil are the storage place of carbon. Release and up-take of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, can effect on climatic change. The solution to control global warming is energy conservation and halting of deforestation to reduce carbon dioxide emission. <br /><br />Forestry itself have genetic implications, since in breeding organisms requiring much space, population sizes are often kept small. The taxonomy and reproductive biology variation is done on genera like Pinus, Eucalyptus, Tectona, Acacia, Gmelina and Terminolia while production forestry work done on Leucaena, prosopis and gliricidia used as agro-forestry. The genetic conservation of woody plants need more speedy collection and conservation of seed and only time-frame bears any relation to climatic change. <br /><br />We have to concentrate on fire-tolerant tree growth like sequoia gigantea, which not only helps in destruction of forest by natural fire but it wood will helps to protect the building to catch fire. <br /><br />If we improve forestry in Sindh-Pakistan, it will not only boost our economy but also protect the nature and provide sustainable development in the universe. <br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-23566932383010698492007-08-23T02:33:00.000-07:002007-08-23T02:35:55.395-07:00Public and private sector partnership in PakistanPublic and private sector partnership in Pakistan<br />Farzana Panhwar<br /> <br /> <br />Introduction.<br />Pakistan’s population is increasing at rate of 2.9% per annum is expected to hit 150 million by year 200 AD.<br />Share of agriculture in Gross Development Product (GDP) has decreased from 35% to 26%, though there has been small increases in production per acre. This is mainly, due to low prices of certain essential food items like, grains, meat, fish edible oil and etc., fixed by the Government, to allow the urban blue-collared workers to get cheap food, and in turn accept low wage rates fixed by the Government and employed by the commerce, industry and government. <br />Incidence of poverty is more in rural areas (33.5%) than in urban (27%). <br />Since wage increase is in not proportion to annual inflation the poverty has increased in the past 4 years. <br />Poverty reduction programmes of Usher and Zakat have in general not benefited the poor. On the contrary they have helped religious elite and contributed towards religious fanaticism, superstition, ignorance and becoming content with poverty and corruption in the ranks. <br />In the past two decades there is no direct relation between economic growth and poverty reduction in Pakistan, showing that by economic growth, it is the rich, who have benefited. <br />The economic growth is last 15 years has been a low of 1.5%<br />Per capita income increase is 1.2% per year in last 15 year, and this has not helped in reduction of poverty. <br />Its per capita monthly income in 1995 was Rs.445 US$12.63.<br />Pakistan has low life expectancy, higher infant mortality, lower adult literacy than neighbouring India. <br /> <br /> <br />Migration. <br />In 1995 urban population was 35% and rural 65%, but migration from rural to urban areas continues and the figure in year 2000, urban population may be around 38-39%. By the year 2010 it is expected to be 50% and 65% by 2025.<br />Migration in Pakistan has been job oriented. Large number of people migrated from India between 1947-1960.<br />Economic difficulties in India and Bangladesh encouraged migration from both countries after 1970 and process continued in 1980s. <br />Migrations from India has nearly stopped in 1990s due to high incidence of unemployment in Pakistan.<br />The immigrants from India found government job lucrative, but their next generation from 1980 onwards entered into private companies occupying usually the white-collared jobs.<br />In 1950s and 60s there was migration of people from NWFP, where agricultural expansion is as lacking and surplus labour moved to Karachi as industrial and construction labour force. The migration continues to this day. <br />There was agricultural expansion in the Punjab due to land reclamation and new irrigation projects after 1960. These could absorb surplus rural population. Industry in Punjab could also absorb any surplus population from 1960-1970.<br />Migration of surplus population of Punjab to Karachi and other areas of Sindh started in 1970 and continues to this day. <br />In 1960-70, Sindh released some 5.5 million acres of new land in the Guddu, Sukkur and Kotri barrage areas and these could keep 5.5 million people in rural areas and so there was no migration from Sindh to big cities. By 1985 all new lands in Sindh were brought under cultivation and population became surplus, leading to migration towards industrial areas, towns and cities. <br />Migration leads to 2 million Pathans from NWFP, 1.5 million from the Punjab, and about half a million from Afghanistan and 3 millions from India in Karachi alone. The immigrants from the same areas to other parts of Sindh may be 50% of these figures. <br /> <br />Family sizes. <br />Joint family still persists in Pakistan. Until recently women did not leave house to work out-side and when they did, they could hardly meet personal expenses as they found employment only in low paid jobs. What ever she earned was contributed to family budget. In a joint family not even 50% adults have had jobs and the contribution of all wage earners kept the family going. <br />Some educated young couples separated from the family but usually when parents of both could support their families with-out them. <br />Joint family size usually was 6-9 persons and young couples ultimately produced 4-5 children, reaching the joint family size. <br />Due to large number of migration the urban cities get over-population and face a basic health problems of housing, electricity, safe drinking water, telephone and transportation. The Government alone can not help these immigrants due to lack of resources men power and brain power. In order to handle such situation we have to develop public and private sector partnerships, which not only invests but also produce competition which results inot lower prices and better service facilities. The recent partnership examples are: in air-lines services, telephone (cellular) and television and private electrical hydropower generation organisations. <br />Ethnic groups.<br />Pakistan is an old country in which for centuries large percentage of population had never travelled beyond 10 miles radius except the nomadic animal gazers, who traversed the waste land areas from very long distances, in search of animal feed and forage. They thus developed small cultures within the small localities. In Pakistan there are district cultural entities or groups which could be divided in some 20 groups, but yet their close affinities has reduced them to 6 major groups namely; Pathan from NWFP and northern Baluchistan, Punjabis from the northern Punjab, Seraiki from the southern Punajb, Baluchis from Baluchistan, Sindhi from Sindh and Urdu speaking immigrants from India to big cities in Sindh. The last group is mostly from Uttar Paradesh, Bihar and Hyderabad Deccan from India and they had immigrated from Central Asia and Iran to India between 13th and 17th centuries. Connecting them-selves with the ruling elite they formed a distinct cultural group and some kind of homogeneity. Included in the Indian immigrants are people from Gujarat, Kutch and Kathiawar, whose mother tongue is Gujarati and who formed business and industrial class. Most of them had the immigrated from Sindh to these area in mid 16th centuries and culturally and anthropologically they have affinities with Sindhis, though being monied class they have drifted from main stream of Sindhi culture. <br />The various ethnic and cultural classes, their food habits and dresses and way of living is different from each other. This is a big challenge for a Government because certain type of oil seeds, pulses, herbs, nuts, medicinal plants etc., which are part of daily life of these peoples are not grown in Pakistan Government has to import these items from abroad. At the same time Pakistan basic staples food are wheat, rice, militate and sorghum. Their production is not enough to meet requirements of all the citizens. This has put more pressure on Government to import these items. At the same Pakistan production of cotton high but due to export quota, cloth becomes surplus. The Government alone can not handle these challenges unless they have private partners. In Pakistan lot of private industries came up to provide better services at low prices but collapse of stock market in 1995 reversed industrial production, exports and increased imports. <br />Micro-environment of companies in Pakistan. <br />Pakistan lacked industry and therefore industrial base was created by the Government artificially by encouraging certain business-men to set-up commercial and industrial enterprises. This resulted into:<br />Monopolies on industrial production. <br />Government allowing local industry ex-factory prices, at 15% above the imported F.O.R prices. <br />Import of machinery for industry without taxes. <br />Allowing Tax holiday for 5-8 years. <br />Allowing loans to the extent of 75%, if party contributed 25% in for of assets of cash. <br />The banks advanced loan to the government favourites. <br />Industrialists made so much profit that within 3-5 years, they could set-up another industry from the profits. <br />Some private banks started by the rich industrialists, established branches all over the country. These banks advanced loans to them for new industries. Such facilities were not extended to every one, as it needed government support to sanction any industry. <br />By 1970 so much wealth accumulated within a few families, that they were counted as 22, who owned most of the wealth in Pakistan.<br />Finance.<br />There were no financial problems to rich until 1973. The government then nationalised all the banks breaking monopoly of 22 families and allowed industries to be opened by any one. <br />However corruption in government was so much that only rich took advantage by bribing politicians and officers. <br />Research and Development.<br />In Pakistan very little amount in spent on Research and Development and technologies are copied from abroad. <br />The only source of research to manufacturers were the market intermediaries, who watched the products of the competitors and reported to the companies, about needs for improvement, reduction in prices, changes in designs and other factors which involved market acceptability. <br />Purchasing. <br />In general purchasing is done at most competitive rates and most of the time without any care for quality. Though they could make sales within the country, but lost in the international market. <br />Manufacturing. <br />The manufacturing methods of the whole industry are out-dated and labour intensive.<br />Physical Distribution.<br />This system is very efficient because of large number of agents, sub-agents and their employees, in the market chain. The competition between them is so great that each works hard and distribution is fast, if there is demand for particular types of goods. <br /> <br />Market Survey Agencies. <br />The market agents work as market researchers. <br />There are a few market consulting firms and most of the time they are not utilised. <br />Financial Intermediaries.<br />Financial intermediaries are banks, insurance companies etc. The banks usually favour the very rich and therefore large manufacturers do not find difficulties but small ones get squeezed tight.<br />Competitors.<br />Over the years there has developed competition due to lack of diversity in the industry and too many parties manufacturing the same items. There also is lack of trained manpower and lack of advanced technology for setting-up new and diversified industries to reduce unhealthy competition on a few items. <br />This is resulted into; competitive prices to the consumer, though there is a continuous quality deterioration. <br />Publics.<br />The publics part of the companies is very poor for the above reasons. <br />Financial Public.<br />Industrial and commercial concern are able to manage funds from banks whereas small parties usually face difficulties. <br />Media Public.<br />Media usually play very little role, except advertisements in a news papers, television and radio. Some journals publish articles on various fashions, housing, clothing, furniture, furnishing, electronic goods etc., and they induce people to buy. Business concerns usually advertise and besides newspapers, T.V., seems to be most effective. <br />The government public and citizen action publics and as well as other from of local, general and internal publics count little in Pakistan.<br /> <br />Micro-Environments.<br />Demographic Forces.<br />Demographic forces have already been discussed in demographic environment of Pakistan. It shows that there are only two classes of people; the labour class and elite rich class. The middle class is gradually being pushed down to labour class and percentage of white collared workers is reducing. The capacity to buy is reducing. Lack of education is also increasing the blue-collared workers and reducing white collared ones. Ethnic groups still maintain their respected cultures and try to live the life, as in back home. Their buying patterns are similar as in back home. There is a gradual change due to contacts with other ethnic groups. The upper middle class or the lower upper class is getting-out from ethnic culture and therefore their buying is different from their original ethnic groups. This class has evolved in to a separate urban class of their own and could be classified as ‘New Urban elite’.<br />Economic Environment.<br />Economic environment has been very poor. As the per capita income of majority of population is reducing, the buying power is limiting. To cater for their needs product-quality is being reduced year after year.<br />Chance in Income.<br />The income of salaried worker is reducing year after year, as the government does not raise the salaries as per annual inflation. The prices of various commodities had been rising at the rate of 2% per annum compounded for the last 3 years, but the wage increase is nominal. Added to that there is unemployment and therefore lack of income and purchasing power. <br />Changes in Consumer-Spending.<br />The consumer had to limit themselves to the cheapest products, and cheapest food. This resulted in to reduction in sales of manufactured goods and manufacturers not making enough sales leading to lower production and consequently reducing number of working shifts in the factories and retrenchment in the companies. This in turn reduced the purchasing power of people as a whole and closure of more and more factories.<br />Natural Environments. <br />The major raw material requirement is oil, which is in short supply in Pakistan. There is a huge deposits of coal but they are not developed. Many varieties of minerals are available, but they are not being mined or processed locally and export market is un-explored. There are pressures which have load to use of more oil, rather than coal and railways as a means of transport have been totally destroyed. Natural gas is available and more fields are being discovered but the government policies of supplying gas at very low price to the industry, has lead to waste of gas in boilers and in thermal units of very poor efficiency. Raising the prices of gas will trigger improvement in respective machinery and manufacturers to increase thermal efficiencies. The cost of energy so far charged was low and increasing of prices of electricity has raised up-roar among the consumers. Again it is true that electric power generation and transmission has power efficiency due to thefts. <br />Government intervention in natural resource.<br />Government intervention in natural resource management from production to end use is very poor. Pakistan’s production of CO2 per capita is 0.6 tons against nearly 10 tons in Europe and 19.0 tons in USA. The burden of environment protection does not lie with Pakistan as with the developed countries. However government have done very little in developing other natural resources. <br /> <br />Technological Environments.<br />Fast Technological Changes.<br />Pakistan industry in general is at the pre-World-War-II technological level and this is the main cause of the failure of economy. <br />R and D Cost.<br />All developing countries copy the developed countries and only developed countries spend on R&D. Pakistan copies developed countries, but at least some amount of R&D and technology is needed to copy, which is lacking and therefore t5here are failures and drawback in manufactured goods and non acceptability in international markets. <br />Continuous minor improvement. <br />There have to be continuous minor improvements at manufacturing level. This in general is lacking in Pakistan. <br /> <br />Political Environment. <br />Political environments in Pakistan are burdened with corruption at the government level; "Pakistan being the third most corrupt country of the World".<br />The competition lacks, except in certain industries. The government creates monopolies. <br />There is very little protection from the government. For malpractices no action is taken by the police or respective agencies. <br />Environment protection measure are needed so that effluent from the industries are not discharged directly to the rivers, streams, and the sea. <br />The government has not enforced any regulations for the treatment of industrial effluents. <br />In big cities riksha, trucks and vehicle emit huge quantities of raw lubricant oils, diesel and petrol causing respiratory diseases, allergies and etc., but government has ignored to enforce standards.<br /> <br />Cultural Environment.<br />Due to lack of education among the masses, there is persistence of cultural values, especially among the blue collared workers. <br /> <br />Shifting Cultural Values.<br />There has been shift in the cultural values in the educated middle and upper classes. The T.Vs and dish antenna have brought cultural changes in the labour class, though process is gradual, but the television past few years is bringing revolution among the poor even in remote areas. Contact with other people of the World and their ways of living has been changing people views of themselves, others organisations for which they work, society, nature and universal, in the middle class and again specially in those who understand English well. The upper middle class and upper class has already accepted shift in cultural values. The blue collared and poor are also being affected by this impact. This will create new market for the changing values. <br /> <br />Conclusion.<br />Pakistan is in state of economic depression leading to more and more unemployment closure of manufacturing plants, lack of sales of processed goods, inadequate export, and lack of foreign exchange to import, all leading to lack of power to purchase. <br />This recession can easily be traced back to governments creating monopolies, favouritism, support prices, new industries, suppressing prices of food to reduce the wage rate, not fixing minimum wage rate as per annual inflation and finally creating very rich and eliminating middle class. This recession will lead to more and more unemployment, lack of sales, create a situation similar to post World War-II era, which created dictators, in many countries World over. Still it did not help the countries which had dictators and nor did it help countries which hated dictatorship. The World War-II avenged on all of them, who were responsible for post-war recession.<br /> <br /> <br />Return to Sincronía Fall 2003<br />Return to Sincronía General IndexFarzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-184893232663814302007-08-23T02:30:00.000-07:002007-08-23T02:33:05.894-07:00RESEARCH IS NEEDED TO CHANGE THE CURRICULUM ACCORDING TO NEW CENTURY DEMANDS IN PAKISTANRESEARCH IS NEEDED TO CHANGE THE CURRICULUM ACCORDING TO NEW CENTURY DEMANDS IN PAKISTAN<br /><br /><br />Abstract.<br /><br />In Pakistan all educational institutes can easily be divided into three different groups, according to educational establishment runs by various organisations. These are:<br /><br />a) Educational institutes run by provincial government ministries.<br />b) Educational institutes run by federal government ministers.<br />c) Educational institutes run by private organisations.<br /><br />The educational institutes run by the governments used the curriculum which was designed by the British officers at the times of pre-partition, still (even today) the same curriculum is used with minor changes. <br /><br />The educational institutes run by the Federal government used curriculum from the British period the only difference in marking and grading system which is different from the old educational institutes.<br /><br />The privately run educational institutes are of various types. Some used the same curriculum as that of the governmental institution, but most of these institutes now have affiliations with the foreign educational institutes, which use the same curriculum as Oxford University UK or that used in USA, Australia, Germany, New Zealand and many other foreign countries curriculum. These institutes definitely provide a curriculum which change fits the times and is more close to the requirement. <br /><br />Although all the above three categories of educational institutions in Pakistan do their best, but still there is lack of certain consideration during the designing of curriculum. This has brought a big gaps in absorption of the educated persons in the recent industries. This is the reason that Pakistan’s educated youth have been frustrated in getting a jobs. Their educational degrees have not provided them enough understanding and practical experience to be hired up in the industries, using less advanced scientific machines, as most of industries are located near place where they get cheap raw materials, use less labour efficient system of work to full-fill mass-production and turnout products very cheap to meet growing population needs. This bring unemployed of educated youth at the same time vacuum in the technical profession in industries. In order to bring sustainability, research is needed to change the curriculum, according to the new century’s demands in Pakistan. <br /><br />Research, survey, observations and findings.<br /><br />In modern world, new scientific inventions in every field of life are coming very fast, and superseding the old theories. In this computerised world, where the life is very fast, people spent very little time on cooking food as a result a chain of fast-food shops have opened every where to full-fill timely need. But these things have a great impact on our life of new generation. <br /><br />In 1987 a survey was conducted in primary a country school in developed country conducted by educationist, in which students were given a task to draw a picture of fish. It was a shocking report that 90% of students had drawn a square piece of fish, and written “fish and finger-chips” and while 10% students submitted a blank-sheet of paper as they did not understand word “fish”. The physiologist and teachers were called to resolve this problem. It was revealed that since working parents had no time to purchase a raw fish and cook in their homes, they depended upon fast food shops fish and chips. The school than decided to change the syllabus and instead to drawing a fish, they took children to aquarium to familiarise them about the shapes and colours of fish. But it is still a big question that genetic engineering has developed a population of same size, uniform colour, and shape. This still raises other question of small and big fish weighing up to 500g. By combining both fishes the net total weight is 700g. In this example the word “small” “large” “various sizes” “various weights” and their plus and minus of mathematics was taught. <br /><br />What we do with genetically evolved fish in which all fishes have uniform shape, size, colour and weight. It amounts that we re-write our curriculum, spellings, examples of small and big, size and mathematical calculations. Other problem is colour of fish. We have seen fishes of a few distinct colours, so it is easy for primary school level children to be taught seven distinct colours. Genetically engineered fish show fluorescent, translucent and combinations colours and this terminology is to be included in the syllabus. <br /><br />Other example is chicken. Since our childhren have seen a photographs of chicken with feathers, but genetically engineered featureless chicken no more look like a chicken, so children get confused with photographs of feather-less chicken.. <br /><br />In our childhood we have seen that cow, buffalo, goat, sheep eat fodder and that what we taught to our children. But in 20th century we have given bone meal to cow. It means our definition of carnivorous and harbivours has changed. Now dog which is a carnivorous animal eat wheat bread and rice. Crow which is a carnivorous depend upon vegetables and fruits due to shortage of access to meat by it. <br /><br />In rural areas we always see lot of butter flies but due to green-revolution, climatic change, and global warming their population has diminished. In our biology class we have learn that butter-flies. Insects are used for transferring of pollen from one plant to other and as a result pollination take place and fruit is formed. This is to be incorporated in our knowledge. <br /><br />Genetic engineering, molecular biology and tissue culture and biotechnology have brought a revolution in agriculture. Many of these plants have peculiar characteristic and they no more are based on cross-pollination. Instead they are self-pollinated. <br /><br />In rural area the people have spent all their life in agriculture and if they pass their life long practical experience, knowledge and teaching to the children. This knowledge will be too old and un-practical, according to century’s demands.<br /><br />In the olden days we preserved, seeds for next crop but hybrid varieties and intellectual property rights does not allow this practice. In olden days we always told our children that roses are red but now new hybrids of roses consisting of all colours including black and white are available. Previously the grand mother’s tales about moon being very beautiful and beautiful children were compared to moon. In this century when man has already reached the moon and its telescopic picture are published in the newspapers, people know that moon is having uneven surface and it is not as beautiful as it looked from the earth. Thus if you tell children that they are so beautiful like moon they may not like this idea. Our old ways of references are changing. Previous we knew that fruits and vegetable can not kept fresh, except for a few days but genetically engineered food commodities have better shelf life and more nutrition value. <br /><br />Our curriculum of biology, mathematics, science and arts has to be changed according to new circumstances in which our environment, urbanisation, technology and industries are entirely changed than we have studied, observed or listened to in the past. <br /> <br /><br />In Pakistan they conducted an entry examination for kinder-garden children. They observed few children when given a task to write A to Z, they were so involved into with stationary, scales, pencils, boxes, sharpeners, a drawing alphabets along with examples and were coping. The children are put to computer use at an early age in their home and they do not like to remember tables instead they use calculators. <br /><br />The industries have changed with the time and even school children carry a latest version of telephone. The children now involve more in using technology. They do not put friend’s phone and address on a note book, but instead learn to press button in a mobile, telephone or dairy or calculators or computers to store their require data. <br /><br />The genetic and advanced technologically has produced commodities, agriculture, animals, medicine, process industries and all manufacturing plants. To run and understand things like environmental pollution, good health, global warming and climatic change to make our children familiar with coming developments, we need to rewrite the syllabus from primary to the university level. Along with these following suggestion may be considered:<br /><br />Suggestions.<br /><br />1) Primary school children may be taken to aquariums, zoos, botanical gardens and fruit and vegetable markets. <br /><br />2) Secondary level students may be taken to all industries, sea ports, air-ports, dry-ports and computer centres.<br /><br />3) All agriculture universities graduate students in agriculture may spend some time with advance technologies centres like: agriculture, soil and plant testing laboratories, tissue-culture, molecular biology and genetic engineering laboratories, showing them export, import and pre and post-harvest conditions. <br /><br />4) Medical students may taken to various hospitals showing them patients with new diseases, train them on various computerised and advance machines used in medical line and showing them new research work in the laboratories. They also be familiarised with pharmaceutical industries and doctors should be ready to be sent any part of the world, where ever need arises. <br /><br />5) Engineering students may be taken to various manufacturing in industries. They should know to computerise and satellite controlled missiles technology and advances in aeroplanes, rails, buses, ships, refrigerated lorries, assembling and manufacturing etc. <br /> <br />Conclusion. <br /><br />In order to meet the new century’s demands, we have to build some think tank, having specialists, in every walk of life and define a new syllabus, which should have uniform educational standards, so our children should be familiarised with developing and develop world and build the new uniform world for sustainable development, with same laws for every one like: WTO, Intellectual Property rights, Information Technologies and Advance Sciences. We will hope this help to bring peace and satisfaction in the world. <br /><br />Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br />Fax:Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-45515209532005687482007-08-23T02:27:00.000-07:002007-08-23T02:29:57.028-07:00POULTRY FARMING PRACTICE IN SINDH-PAKISTANPOULTRY FARMING PRACTICE IN SINDH-PAKISTAN<br /><br />By<br />Farzana Panhwar<br /><br />Abstract<br /><br />The population of the poultry in Pakistan in year 1971-72 was 17.7 million it rose into 80.3 million in just 10 years period from 1982-83. The poultry meat production was 14,000 raise to 75,000 tons. The number of egg was 583 million to 4,213 millions. Per capita availability was from 9 to 47. There are 8,000 commercial farms was in the country in the year 1982-83. In 1986 the poultry population in Pakistan was 57.5 million heads while in Sindh it was 8.7 million heads. In 1994-95 the total meat was 2.1 million tonnes/million out of which 308,000 tonnes was poultry meat. For the same year the egg production was 5,927 million. The poultry industry showed a 10% annual growth rate. This made Pakistan not only self-sufficient in poultry production but earning millions of dollars foreign exchange Gradually poultry industry has developed an investment base of about Rs.60 billion. Poultry industry proved to be an employment source of a large number of people, particularly to those living in the rural areas <br />. <br /><br />In 1996 in Pakistan the poultry population was 63,198,000 heads, while in Sindh it was 11,549,000 heads. In year 1999-00 the poultry meat production was 322,000 tonnes/million, while egg production was 8,463,000 tonnes/millions.<br /><br />Poultry meat is more common in Sindh due to poultry meat have less fat than beef or mutton we observe that. The size of egg and chicken will improve if light is provided in the sheds at the night time. Poultry waste have advantage that each 50 kg bag of dry material from digested effluent will be worth Rs.50,000 in term of nitrogen, phosphate and potash, assuming the present rates of fertiliser. These fertilisers become chelated and crops give much higher response to them than ordinary mannures and fertilisers.<br /><br />Poultry meat is more common in Sindh due to poultry meat have less fat than beef or mutton we observe that. The size of egg and chicken will improve if light is provided in the sheds at the night time. Poultry waste have advantage that each 50 kg bag of dry material from digested effluent will be worth Rs.50,000 in term of nitrogen, phosphate and potash, assuming the present rates of fertiliser. <br />Our experience show that the four factors are the basic requirement of poultry farming these are<br /><br />Floor space, feeder space, fountain (water space) fresh air space. The floor space requirement during brooding (First to 6 weeks), floor space requirement for adult birds (egg and meat type), floor space requirement for adult birds (breeder type), feeder space for adult birds, water space during brooding, water space for adult bird<br />In order to get good profit from poultry one must have good knowledge of poultry farming, better management skill. Know the balance diets for birds are able to take quick stand in case of diseases prevention and control.<br /><br />We observe various constraints in meat and egg production in Pakistan these are:<br /><br />• High rate of mortality due to contagious diseases and other diseases:<br />• Lack of disease diagnostic facilities.<br />• Deficient managerial and feeding practice.<br />• Lack of availability of better productive stock.<br />• Lack of trained staff in poultry husbandry.<br /><br />The other drawback of poultry industry in Pakistan are:<br /><br />High cost, low standard of commercial feed, poor management, poor housing facilities, high rate of infection and diseases, high rate of mortality due to lack of diagnostic laboratories, shortage of qualified veterinaries and high price of feed. <br /><br />Some important aspect of poultry are as under:<br /><br />Poultry feed.<br /><br />Poultry is the most efficient converter of inedible proteins into edible. It converts 2.5 Ibs of feed in to one Ib of chicken and 2.46 Ibs of feed into one Ib of egg. <br /><br />Chicken food consist of cereals (coarse grains), plant protein source, animal protein source, agro-based industrial by-products, vitamins, minerals, antibiotics, maize, sorghum, broken rice, fish meal, meat meal, blood meal, decorticated cotton seed meal, til cake, toria cake, corn gluten meal, guar meal, ground-nut cake, sun flower cake and soybean meal.<br /><br />Poultry feed is composed of carbohydrates, protein, fat, minerals and vitamins, about 40 different types of raw materials are also used in preparing the feed. Coccidiostats antioxidants, antibiotic, vitamins and minerals are needed to included in the diet. Dehydrated lucerne or alfalfa improve the quality of meat and egg in case of poultry.<br /><br />Infection and diseases in poultry.<br /><br />After contamination the organisms may enter the egg by one of the three ways:-<br /><br />a) Drawn through the shell pores during periods of temperature differential.<br />b) Penetrate due to the mortality of the organisms.<br />c) Penetrate defective shells.<br /><br />Diseases of poultry<br /><br />These are mareck’s disease, Newcastle disease (Rani khet), coccidiosis, leucosis, salmonellosis and fowl pox while less important disease are: bronchitis, laryngiotracheitis and avian encephalomyelitis, spirochaetosis, mareck’s disease and fowl cholera.<br /><br />In Pakistan three strains of Newcastle disease are used these are:<br /><br />a) Newcastle disease virus (living) Lasota strain.<br />b) Newcastle disease virus (living) Mukteswar strain.<br />c) Newcastle disease virus (living) Komarov strain.<br /><br />The vaccine prepared from all these strains contain live viruses of chick embryo origin in lyophilised form sealed under vacuum. <br /><br />Unfortunartely, the recent bird flu rumours damaged the poulty industry in Pakistan. All the investors at samall and large levels lost a big portion of what they had earned in last 15-20 years.<br /><br />Medicine used in poultry<br /><br />These are as under:<br /><br />• Phenothiazine powder: It removes stomach worms, tapeworms, Hook worms and Nodular worms in poultry.<br />• Oxytetracycline HCl injection: 100mg/ml PV.P and 50mg/ml. Pneumonia C.R.D.H.HS Anthrax, infections enteritis, Ricketsial, spirochaetosis and other infections in poultry.<br />• Sulphadimidine sodium injection: It controls bacterial, viral, Ricketisal and Protozoan diseases in poultry.<br />• Eg-grow granule feed: Deficiency of calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D, low egg production, soft shell eggs in poultry.<br />• Furazolidone 5% to 20%: Salmonellosis, pullorum, fowl typhoid, block head, infectious coryza, early chick mortility.<br />• Polyzol: (Thiasolucin solution 45%) for the treatment of infectious colds, coryza and cholera in poultry.<br />• Polymycine powder: (Antibiotic feed supplement) Bacterial infections and early chick mortality, to maintain vigour, health and production in poultry.<br />• Rasovit powder: (vitaminized feed supplement) vitamin deficiencies, stress, extra energy, growth and egg production in poultry.<br />• Pick-NOL: Antipicking paste, antivice preparation to check picking, biting and cannibalism antiseptic for wounds. <br />• E.Coli infections is controlled by Doxycycline at the rate of 2mg/litre of drinking water for 3-5 days. <br /><br />In order to reduce the infection and diseases the extension worker can play a role so the work of extension should be as under.<br /><br />a) To raise poultry productivity by dissemination of useful and practical information relating to poultry industry.<br />b) To raise the standard of living of farmers by the practical application of such knowledge to farm and home situation.<br />c) Farmer should be trained to provide proper feed, sanitation and correct doses of vaccination.<br />d) Steps are being taken for the supply of medicine, mass vaccination and treatment of poultry birds against major epidemic diseases in the country.<br /><br />In order to bring poultry Farming into highly profitable business.<br /><br />To revive this industry and to attract new investment, Pakistan Poultry Association requests and recommends the following to the government of Pakistan.<br /><br />• 10 years tax holidays for new poultry-farming projects.<br />• Exemption of custom duty and sales tax on poultry related raw material and machinery.<br />• Interest free loans for the small poultry farmers.<br />• Specific relief on all the due loans of poultry farmers.<br />• Removal of all the obstracies in the way of export of poultry products.<br />• Exception from all local taxes.<br /> <br /> <br /> We hope that these steps will revive the poultry industry in Pakistan.<br /> <br /> Future research is needed in the following points.<br /> <br />• Develop breeding farm.<br />• Economical hatchery development.<br />• Better feeding mill.<br />• Good nutritional feeding formula.<br />• Develop broiler farm.<br />• Good freezing and cold storage facilities.<br />• Hygienic packing conditions. <br />• Proper control over disease and infections.<br />• Provide balanced and nutritive diet. <br /><br />In future we have to popularise processing system which consist of following parts:<br /><br />• Automatic supply system.<br />• Killing and de-feathering.<br />• Evisceration systems.<br />• Chilling system for air and water chill.<br />• Electronic weighing and grading lines.<br />• Packing lines.<br />• Automatic portioning equipment and lines.<br />• Automatic breast filleters. <br />• Automatic re-hang of products to other processing lines. <br />• Vacuum offal transport systems. <br /> <br /> In future.<br /> <br /> We need to:<br /> <br />• Strengthening the poultry extension service and poultry husbandry techniques.<br />• Mass vaccination to birds in village against contagious diseases also render treatment, disease diagnostic facilities.<br />• Supply better breeds for multiplication and cross-breeding. <br />• Strengthening training facilities on different aspects of poultry farming.<br /> <br /> Conclusion.<br /> <br /> We have to improve feed, introduce new techniques for marketing, provide better living conditions, better facilities for cold storage of meat, to develop cheap feeding formula and better planning for poultry industry include feed, market, climate and infrastructure.<br /> <br /> Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br /> Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br /> E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br /> Farzanapanhwar@yahoo.com <br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-4481738676987721532007-08-23T02:23:00.000-07:002007-08-23T02:25:20.632-07:00On farm waste used as organic fertiliserOn farm waste used as organic fertiliser <br /><br /> <br /><br />Fruit farmer Mrs Farzana Panhwar, based near Hydearabad, Pakistan, has written to farmingsolutions to explain how and why she produces ecologically sound low-cost compost by utilising ‘on farm waste’. She uses an environmentally friendly way to produce valuable fertiliser necessary to keep her 100-acre (42 hectare) fruit orchard productive.<br /><br />Summary<br />Composting involves transforming organic matter rich in carbohydrates yet deficient in nitrogen into a new and stable product. This occurs when the aerobic (growing) bacteria’s metabolism consumes carbohydrates. That in turn converts both nitrogen into a stable product and micronutrients such as copper, zinc, manganese and iron into their organic form – ready for application to the soil and as plant breeding material. <br /><br />Raw compost materials used by the Panhwar fruit farm include: Crop residue Grass clippings Leaves Newspaper Peat moss Straw Wood chips and sawdust Farmyard manure <br />Urea is added to the compost as it is convenient and cost-free. Sometimes farmyard manure sold by nearby villages - is used. The volume of farmyard manure has to be about half that of the other materials listed above. If urea mixed alone with sawdust is used, then the formula is as follows: Take two-part leaves mixed with one-part grass clippings to ensure fast, odourless decomposition. Add to this three times as much plant matter as urea to obtain the best results.<br /><br />Factors affecting the composting process include: <br />oxygen aeration nutrients (C:N ratio) moisture porosity structure Texture, and particle size pH temperature time<br />Advantages of composting<br />The advantages of composting are multifold. The digestion of bulky organic matter to almost one-third its original volume takes place and there is a multiple increase in nutrient levels of nitrogen, phosphate and potash. The product is available to plants in an acceptable form and is easy to transport, store and apply. The mixture is stable in dry conditions and does not leach away, so that roots readily take the micronutrients it contains.<br /><br />The compost can also be partially dissolved in water. The solution-containing ingredient can be mixed with water for foliar feed of the plants. Almost any non-synthetic organic matter can be converted into compost by adding the ingredients listed above in quantities that will provide a balanced product.<br /><br />Potting compost ingredients include: <br />Sawdust = 35.2 cubic feet Urea = 1 kg Triple phosphate = 1 kg Potassium sulphate = 1 kg CuSO4 = 200 grams ZnSO4 = 250 grams FeSO4 = 250 grams MnSO4 = 150 grams Boron = 150 grams<br />This type of mixture is turned over daily for 2-3 months until it sinks to about two thirds of its original volume. At this point the pile no longer heats up. This mixture is most suitable for potting nursery plants.<br /><br />Irrigating and mulching<br />In Pakistan people often use flood irrigation, which leads to temporary anaerobic conditions for bacteria after application. This type of irrigation is used frequently in hot and dry weather and can have the effect of reducing yield. So on the Panhwars’ farm irrigation is introduced indirectly by planting trees on ridges about 2 meters wide and 25-30 cm high and applying water in furrows. Furrow widths vary between 2.4 - 4.0 meters depending on the type of fruit tree growing there. The grass that grows in furrows under the trees is dumped on the ridges as mulch and irrigation water is directed along these channels. The water then seeps horizontally in the ridges and when evaporating moistens the mulch which, exposed to air and moisture, is attacked by fungus, bacteria, insects and their predators such as earthworms. Within three months, the new layer of grasses growing in the furrow is recycled on the ridge. This is compost in its most suitable form.<br /><br />Results – Panhwar’s compost serves to: <br />Form humic acid, which acts as stimulant plant growth Condition the soil, helping to reduce soil-born plant diseases Increase water holding capacity Increase infiltration rates Increase soil aeration Promote the growth of bacteriophages, which destroy harmful bacteria Provide the ideal condition for beneficial insect proliferation on the outer side of compost heaps Maintain soil structure Retain air, moisture and nutrients for crops to grow Help control soil erosion Promote the growth of myeorrhizae associated fungi. t These fungi are essential for the growth of certain species. Composting high carbon manure bedding mixtures lowers the carbon/nitrogen ratio to acceptable levels for rapid application Rduce the need to apply soil fungicides in the production of certain horticultural crops by using compost in potting mixes and seedlings beds Act as a better buffer solution, forming organic acid in the presence of humus <br />If plants are treated with a liquid extract of compost, attacks by fungi such as blight and mildew can be prevented.<br /><br />Conclusion<br />This method of ‘on-farm composting’ brings plants into fruition within 24-36 months on Panhwar’s farm. Without this, these plants would only come into fruition in their 5th year. Plants reared on this compost are healthy and less prone to disease.<br /><br />Source<br />Author: Mrs Farzana Panhwar <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826/92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-62737715400911493312007-08-23T02:20:00.000-07:002007-08-23T02:23:30.300-07:00POST HATRVEST PROBLEMS OF FRUITS AND THE SUPPLIES IN HYDERABAD.POST HATRVEST PROBLEMS OF FRUITS AND THE SUPPLIES IN HYDERABAD.<br /> <br /><br />(Paper of M.H. Panhwar read at Ombudsman’s Seminar “Save Hyderabad” held at Hyderbad on November 3, 2002)<br /> <br />General.<br />There are health and economic problems connected with fruit and vegetable supplies to the city of Hyderabad as well as to all other cities and towns of Pakistan. These are created by pre-harvest treatments, which indirectly affect post-harvest quality from the marketing chain to consumption including waste disposal and create serious problems of health. <br /> <br />Pre-harvest treatments to fruits and vegetables affecting the post-harvest quality and standardized chemicals in Pakistan.<br />Intensive agriculture has lead to excessive use of pesticides on fruit and vegetable crops on large scale. Some of these have undesirable consequences. In 1994 some 203 farm chemicals were standardized by Government of Pakistan for import of them and of them 63 were already banned for use in U.K and USA, but are still being manufactured in developed countries imported and used on crops in Pakistan and other developing countries. There is ban on their use in the developed countries but not their manufacture, on the excuse of free trade. <br /> <br />Chemicals used on fruits, vegetables and cotton and their effect on buffalo health.<br />Consequences these chemicals on fruits and vegetables can be highlighted as an indirect evidence of use of some systemic chemicals on cotton, transmission of them to flowers and subsequently to seed. After extraction of oil from seed for human use, the waste product called oil cake rich in proteins is fed to buffalos in the cattle colony Karachi and probably in all major cities of Pakistan. Some years back the herd-owners found that after feeding cotton seed oil cake to buffalos, 40% of them stopped yielding milk, became sick and half of them died. The sick ones never recovered to be productive and were disposed off in meat market. The herd-owners then shifted to horse beans (channa) as buffalo feed, but milk yield decreased and coconut cake once sold very cheap is not available in Pakistan and soybeans are too costly. If cotton seed cake can be so dangerous to animals, we have to think of oil we eat. When the same chemicals are sprayed on fruit trees and vegetables, a number of times before and after flowering and during fruit development, can these fruits and vegetables be claimed as healthy or worth eating?<br />Fruit milk shakes and hormones RBST.13<br />Milk has become relevant to post-harvest of fruits, as popular drink called milk shakes of mango, apple, chicku (sapodilla), etc., use this milk. It is well known that RBST is injected to buffalos to yield more milk and they do yield more within 5 minutes of injection. Buffalo eat extra feed to produce more milk, but cost of extra feed is more than returns from extra milk yielded by the animals and herd-owners do not understand it. It is not realized that RBST is a dangerous chemical, banned for use in USA and Europe some 3 years back, due to continuous efforts by Professor Samuel Epstein, who found it as a serious cancer against. It is still used daily throughout Pakistan and even in villages. Besides fruit milk-shakes, this milk is also used for all other purposes and also in tea, Pakistan’s national drink.<br /> <br />Chemicals in food and breast cancer.<br />Incidentally one out of seven women in northern America is going to die of breast cancer, due to use of chemicals in food and three international conferences have already been held on this issue in the past 5 years. <br />Post-harvest chemicals treatment for improving shelf life.<br />Fresh fruits after harvest is either dipped in chemicals or is sprayed with them to kill fungus, present on skin of fruits and vegetables to increase shelf-life. They do kill the fungi, but their effects on human health have not been measured. At least one such chemical was banned in USA in 1989, but reportedly for other reasons. <br />Fruit fly infection control and ingression of harmful farm chemicals.<br />Fruit fly with its ovipositor injects eggs inside the fruits. Eggs hatch into larvae, which feeds on fruit and tunnels towards the seed, spoiling it altogether. The presently used remedy is to dip harvested fruit into a chemical for one minute’s duration and it penetrates inside pulp and kills eggs and larvae. This fruit is then marketed within next few days, though manufacturers recommend withholding period of one week. If chemicals can kill larvae inside fruits, how about human consumers of this fruit?<br />These are just a few examples of pre and post-harvest treatments at the farm. <br />Standards for fruit and vegetable harvest.<br />There are no standards and criteria for proper harvest time, size and quality and separation of diseased fruit before packing. Some owners are very careful about separating diseased fruit from healthy one, but mostly it is the fruit harvest contractors who do not care. They pack diseased and rejected fruit and dump it in the market. <br />This fruit comes to the market for sale. Commission agents themselves buy the fruit or sale to sub-agents (Mashakhors) and both groups ripen the fruits for local use. The diseased fruit is also sold to the retailers, who sell it at discounted rates to general public. <br />Juice processors and hepatitis.<br />The rejected fruit is collected at the market by juice processors, who sale juice in containers. They do not care for the disease, so long fruit has flavor. Still some rotten fruit remains with agents and sub-agents who throw it on roads in the market. The vegetables usually dry and rot quickly and they are allowed to be dumped on the roads to be collected by sweepers as waste. Fruit and vegetables markets are places for garbage disposal, and are awfully smelly and unhygienic, due to rotting of the organic material which is first attacked by fungi and then by insects. Market air is full of fungi which then attack fresh fruits and vegetables coming to market and they start deteriorating very fast, but are dumped onto the consumers. <br />Street juice shops and restaurants.<br />In every quarter and almost every major street, there are juice vendors and shopkeepers. A large percentage of them buy only rotten fruit, separate portion which appears to have healthy look and put it in freezer to lower its temperature. They exhibit a few pieces of good quality fruit to attract customers, but juice is extracted from rejected fruit of mango, citrus, apple, water melon, falsa, carrots, grapes and pomegranates in the cold storage. <br />This is fresh juice that most of these shops general supply to un-suspecting customer. There are many exceptions but their prices are high. Rotten fruit is also converted into deserts and salads in cheap restaurants where mango, banana, papaya, apple and citrus are used as such. Except costly ones, most middle and lower class restaurants use this material. <br />Plastic bags for fruits and vegetables and lung cancer.<br />The consumers are delivered fruit and vegetables in plastic bags. The house holds dump these bags in the garbage cans and are collected by municipality and used as fill material but plastic bags do not decompose and their disposal is made easy, by burning. Plastic bags usually are first burnt on the streets, but whatever are left in garbage, are burnt at the dumping grounds. The whole city of Hyderabad almost every day witnesses these plastic fires and their smoke. The smoke is formaldehyde a gas which causes lung cancer. It is expected that lung cancer will take shape of an epidemic in big towns and cities of Pakistan. <br />Acknowledgements.<br />I am grateful to Mrs. Farzana Panhwar for allowing me use following articles of hers for this paper. <br />i) ‘Recently Standardized Pesticides in Pakistan and need for Change’, read at International Conference at Worwick University, U.K., on July 26-28, 1996.<br />ii) ‘Poison in Milk (RBST)’ Letter to DAWN, 1996.<br />iii) ‘Breast Cancer in Women’ papers read at two conferences Kingston (Ontario) Canada, 1997 and Ottawa (Canada), 1999.Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-11038155121073690822007-08-23T02:19:00.001-07:002007-08-23T02:19:57.153-07:00NUTRITION REQUIREMENT OF GOATNUTRITION REQUIREMENT OF GOAT<br /><br />Introduction. <br />In the year 1996 the total goat population in Pakistan was 41166,000 heads, while in Sindh it was 9734,000 heads.<br />In the year 1999-00 total goat population in the country was 47426,ooo heads, while the male population, one year and above was 6010,000 heads, the female one year and above was 25755,000 heads and young stock less than one year was 15661,000 heads.<br />In the year 1999-00, in Pakistan the gross production for milk from goat was 31,804,000 tonnes, while goat milk consumption was 25,566,000 tonnes.<br />In the year 1999-00 in Pakistan the goat meat production was 218,000 tonnes/million, goat skin production was 23.3 million No., goat hair production was 18,000 tonnes.<br />In the year 1999-00 in Pakistan the total fodder production was 2,64,900 hectares out of which in Sindh was 365,700 hectares. The total fodder production in Pakistan was 22.7 per hectare in tonnes, out of which in Sindh ,fodder crop production was 25.0 per hectares in tonnes.<br /><br />General. <br /><br />Goat need food, which provide energy for its daily, body tissues, repair, for it growth, for lactation and to produce healthy off springs. Goat needs balance feed, which consist of protein, minerals, vitamins, water, and roughage. The nutrition requirement of goat depends upon various factors like, age, pregnancy , lactation, health, breed, climate and environment. It is recommended that to feed goat with seasonal feed, it is not only fresh but its provide better nutritional values. The major purposes of goat farming is either for meat or milk production. In both the cases goat not only need a balance diet, but she must have a place to walk, to burns the food and convert into energy. The goat diet plan changes with the supply of fresh green fodder. These are discussed below:<br /><br />Protein requirements in goat.<br /><br />Goat needed protein for normal rumen function and intake capacity. It is find out that below a minimum of 10% of crude protein in diet dry matter, degradable nitrogen is a limiting factor for rumen fermentation. The protein requirement in the body is varies like protein needed for maintenance is 1.42 - 3.40 g digestible crude protein DCP (crude protein CP)/kg, metabolic body weight (BW075). These variation in the diet occurs due to variations of the level of nitrogen, its degradability in the diet. <br /><br />Protein requirements of goat. <br /><br />Maintenance. 2.82g DCP*/kgBW0.75<br /> 51g DCP/kg 45% F.C.M.*<br />Lactation. 6g DCP per 1% fat content variation<br />Maintenance + pregnancy (4th-5th months) <br />4.79g DCP/kg BW0.75*<br />Growth. 195g DCP/kg of gain<br /> Low Maintenance x 1.25<br />Activity Medium Maintenance x 1.50<br /> High Maintenance x 1.75 <br />Fibre production 3g DCP/kg annual fleece yield<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br /><br />Maintenance - energy and protein requirements per day. <br /><br /><br />Live weight (kg) <br />Protein <br /><br /> SE (g) TDN (g) ME (MJ) DCP (g)<br />20 282 324 4.83 19<br />30 383 440 6.55 26<br />40 474 545 8.12 32<br />50 562 646 9.63 38<br />60 645 742 11.04 43<br />70 723 831 12.38 48<br />Words explanations.<br />SE- Starch equivalent.<br />TDN- Total digestible nutrients.<br />ME- Metabolized energy.<br />MJ- Megajoules (1 Calorie= 4.184 joules )<br />DCP- Digestible crude protein.<br /><br /><br /><br />Milk production - energy and protein required per litre of milk.<br /><br /><br />Fat in milk (%) <br />Protein <br /><br /> SE (g) TDN (g) ME (MJ) DCP (g)<br />3.0 243 280 4.17 45<br />4.0 287 330 4.91 51<br />5.0 330 380 5.66 56<br />6.0 374 430 6.40 60<br />Words explanations.<br />SE- Starch equivalent.<br />TDN- Total digestible nutrients.<br />ME- Metabolized energy.<br />MJ- Megajoules (1 Calorie= 4.184 joules )<br />DCP- Digestible crude protein.<br /><br /><br />Growth - energy and protein required per 100g gain.<br /><br /><br />Live weight (kg) <br />Protein <br /><br /> SE (g) TDN (g) ME (MJ) DCP (g)<br />20 - 30 165 190 2.83 24<br />30 - 40 179 206 3.07 26<br />40 - 50 202 233 3.48 29<br /><br />Words explanations.<br />SE- Starch equivalent.<br />TDN- Total digestible nutrients.<br />ME- Metabolized energy.<br />MJ- Megajoules (1 Calorie= 4.184 joules )<br />DCP- Digestible crude protein.<br /><br />Minerals requirement in goat. <br /><br />For a healthy development of the goats it needs following major and minor minerals in her diet. <br /><br /><br />Dietary major mineral requirements of goats. a<br /><br />Item Ca P Mg Na<br />Maintenance/kg 0.75 0.19 0.14 0.045 0.045<br />Lactation/kg milk. 4.3 1.7 0.7 0.5<br />Maintenance + pregnancy, 1-3 months. 4.0 3.0 1.0 1.0<br />(60 kg BW), 4-5 months 10.0 4.5 1.5 1.5<br />Male and female diets/d 3.0 to 3.5 1.5 0.5 0.5<br /><br />a Values are expressed as g/d.<br /><br />Trace mineral allowances for goats. a<br /><br />Element Deficiency<br />Limit* Requirements*<br />(standard diet)<br />Fe 15 30<br />Cu 7 10<br />Co 0.07 0.1<br />I 0.15 0.8<br />Mn 45 60<br />Zn 45 45<br />Se 0.1 0.1<br />Ni 0.1 1<br />Mo 0.2 0.2<br />a From Lamand (17)<br />*Values are expressed in mg/kg DM ingested. <br /><br />Vitamin requirements.<br /><br />The vitamin A requirement is 1.5 - 3.5 mg/d per animal of 50 kg body weight, vitamin D is 250-500 Ib, vitamin E is needed 25-50 mg/d. <br /><br />Water requirement. <br /><br />Goat maintenance requirements of 145.6 g water/kg body weight BW0.75, milk production requirement of 1.43 kg water/kg milk in dairy goat.<br /><br />Forages. <br /><br />Rye grass enable high intake, produce high yield of milk. Corn silage and legume hay reduce milk production. In feed the level of crude fibre and protein content effects on goat milk production. <br /><br />Intake level of green forages used as a sole feed in the basal diet .a<br /><br />Forage State of lactation,<br />days Intake level*<br />g/kg BW0.75<br />Italian rye grass 60-160 82 (60-101)<br />Orchard grass 60-160 65 (59-81)<br />Fescue. 60-160 68 (62-75)<br />Alfalfa. 60-160 103 (69-157)<br />Red clover. 60-160 93 (50-118)<br />Vetch + oats. 130-150 79 (51-150)<br />Corn (maize). 160-200 81 (63-99)<br />Sorghum. 160-200 85 (76-89)<br /><br />a From de Simiane (40)<br /><br />*Tolerated refusals: 25-35%; concentrate intake = 0.7 kg DM.<br /><br />Goat diet not only supply the protein, minerals, vitamins, water, but also have roughages and concentrates. These are explain as under:<br /><br />The common feeds and fodder divided into 2 groups:<br /><br />1) Rough-ages : These are:<br /><br />a) Tree leaves : Neem, Peepal, Bargad, Golar, Jamun, Angir, Babul, Jharberi, Bhimal, Ber, Mulbery leaves. <br /> <br />b) Hays: Cowpes hay, berseem hay and oat hay. <br /> <br />c) Straws: Athar straw, gram, wheat straw and paddy straw. <br /><br />2) Concentrates: These are:<br /><br />Babul pods, gram, wheat bran, groundnut cake, sesame cake, arthar grain, maize, jawar, bajra, barley and guar. <br /><br />Concentrates in goat diets.<br /><br />Goats consume all of the grains; cereals, proteinaceous grains, as a whole, or in ground form. Pelleting seems to improve the palatability of mixture and reduced waste-ages. By-products like as oil-meals, milling by-products, beet pulp, molasses-citrus pulps or different kinds of hulls also be used to concentrate the mixture for goats, which are generally fed ground or pelleted. Good palatability achieved ground mixtures. Pellets should not be too hard or too crubly because goats do not like dust from feed stuffs. <br /><br />These concentrate mixtures can be consumed during milling or in feeders. In all cases it would be better to achieve individual rationing according to the level of milk production. This is not common due to a lack of well-adapted devices or cost of labour. <br /><br />Effect of amounts of concentrates on milk production of goats in midlactation. a<br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /> High Low<br />Total intake, kg DM/d. 2.51 2.25*<br />Forage intake, kg DM/d 1.38 1.71*<br />Concentrate intake, kg DM/d. 1.21 0.64***<br />Milk production, kg/d 3.45 2.91**<br />Fat content, % 2.73 2.85<br />Protein content, % 3.01 2.83*<br />Lactose content, % 3.79 3.65*<br />Persistency of milk production, % decrease/week. <br />2.77 <br />3.55*<br />Energy balance, MJJ/d. +25.34 +18.8*<br />Average weight gain, g/d. +32.1 +20.5*<br /><br />a From Sauvant and Morand-Fehr (36)<br /><br />!From wk 9 to wk 27 of lactation, 32 Alpine goats were given alfalfa hay ad lib and concentrates: 350 g/kg milk in diet “high” in concentrates; and 175 g/kg milk in diet “low” in concentrates. <br /><br />*P<0.05 of difference between high and low;<br />**P<0.01 of difference between high and low;<br />***P<0.001 of difference between high and low.<br /><br />Availability of crop residues and agro-industrial by products: These are as under:<br /><br />Crops. Crop residue or by-products<br />Field Crops. <br />Castor. Castor meal.<br />Cotton. Cotton seed meal.<br />Groundnut. Groundnut meal.<br />Linseed. Linseed meal.<br />Maize. Germ meal and stover.<br />Rape seed. Bran and meal.<br />Rice. Broken, bran, husk and straw.<br />Sesame. Sesame cake. <br />Sorghum. Stover.<br />Soya bean. Soya bean meal.<br />Sugar cane. Bagasse, green tops, molasses.<br /> <br />Wheat. Bran and straw.<br />Tree crops. <br />Dates. Date cake. <br />Mango. Mango pulp and mango skin.<br /><br /><br />Feeding schedule of goat. <br /><br />Stock Concentrate Green fodder/<br />Dry fooder<br />Adult in milk. 400 gm/every litre of milk in addition to 150 gm for maintenance. Ad lib<br />Breeding bucks. 0.5 to 1.0 kg. - do -<br />Yearling does. 250 gm. - do -<br />Pregnant goats. 300-500 gm. - do -<br />Lactating does. 300 gm to 400 gm for each litre of milk. <br />(A) Kids<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />(B) Up-to weaning. The colostrum for 3 days and milk should be fed thrice for 3 days and twice thereafter by bottle water soluble antibiotics should be fed. The milk should be fed at body temperature after boiling. <br /><br />0-60 days. <br /><br /><br />-do-<br /><br /><br />Preparation of concentrate mixtures:<br /><br />For feeding to kids, creep mixtures containing high amounts (50 to 60%) of maize, jawar, barley with groundnut cake should be prepared so that they may be adequate in energy and protein having about 18 DCP and 75 TDN. For Example:-<br /><br />A. <br /><br /> Ingredients Percentage<br /><br />* Maize. 50%<br />* Groundnut cake. 20%<br />* Molasses. 10%<br />* Wheat bran. 7%<br />* Fish meal. 10%<br />* Mineral mixture. 1%<br />* Chalk. 1%<br />* Salt. 1%<br /><br />B. To the above 150 gm TM-5 or aurofac and 25 gm ‘vitablend’ or ‘Ronimix’ should be added per quintal of the creep mixture. <br /><br /> Ingredients Percentage<br /><br />* Gram. 15%<br />* Maize. 37%<br />* Groundnut Cake. 25%<br />* Wheat bran. 20%<br />* Mineral mixture. 2.5%<br />* Common salt. 0.5%<br /> <br /> <br />C. Concentrate mixture at 15 DCP and 65-70 TDN.<br /><br /> Ingredients Percentage<br /><br />* Wheat bran/rice bran. 45%<br />* Groundnut cake/sesame cake. 20%<br />* Barley/Maize/Jawar. 12%<br />* Molasses. 10%<br />* Dal Chunies. 10%<br />* Salt. 1%<br />* Chalk. 1%<br /> <br /><br /><br />Feeding methods to goat and traditional cure.<br /><br />• Over feeding of milk causes diarrhoea to kids, in addition to contaminated or under boiled milk, if fed then give lime water to kids. <br /> <br />• Tymponey is caused to goats if fresh leguminous fodder is fed at a very young stage to cure it give wilted fodder to goats. <br /> <br />• To save tymponey and abnormal fermentation in remain to cure it. Add some energy viz. Molasses not more than 5% of concentrate mixture.<br /> <br />• Under fed goat or poorly managed goat during pregnancy or otherwise cause ketosis in goats to cure provide adequate feed during pregnancy. <br /><br />Various experiments have done by adding urea in to various diets given to goat, these experiments data and results are shown as under:<br /><br />Ref: Conrad et al 1977.<br /><br />Table shows urea effect in molasses plus synthetic energy relations. <br /><br />Ingredient % Diet-1 Diet-2<br />Molasses. 58.8 57.4<br />1, 2-propanediol. `25.4 28.7<br />Urea. 3.8 4.4<br />Water. 20.0 9.5<br />Total 100.0 100.0<br />Apparent digestibility % <br />Crude protein. 77.1 68.4<br />Organic matter. 79.7 65.4<br />N-retention (g/day). 1.11 0.93<br /><br />Ref: Singhat et al 1981.<br /><br />Experiment done by feeding 3 months old male beetal goat diet containing maize, groundnut oil-meal. Diet having 18% crude protein , supplemented by urea or burel, having crude protein 29%.<br /><br /><br />Diet Natural crude protein % Additional urea crude protein % Additional biuret crude protein % N-in take g/day N-retension g/day<br />1 18 - - 12.25 5.02<br />2 18 11 - 17.80 7.00<br />3 18 - 11 18.60 6.69<br />4 29 - - 16.20 5.34<br /><br />Results:<br /><br />Digestibility of crude protein was greater in high-protein diet, feed intake, digestibility of other nutrients were not affected. Urinary nitrogen was greater with 29% crude protein than 18% crude protein in the diet. <br /><br /><br /><br />Various experimental results on diet are as under.<br /><br />• Goat are sensitive to acidosis, if goat diet rich in corn silage or in grains then we must add buffers such as sodium bicarbonate in it. <br /> <br />• It is found that use of non-protein N sources like urea. It is effective when diet contains enough amount of fermentable energy like as starch, to enable an optimum synthesis of microbial proteins in the rumen. The best way is to use soybean meal as a source of protein. <br /> <br />• It is observed that intra-ruminal infusion of urea and ammonium salt reduced meal length, frequency and rate of eating. In an experiment with control concentration show when 58% of nitrogen in concentrated form was supplied in form of urea, the result was meal size is reduced but meal frequency increase. This shows that protein substitution by NPN sources and cheaper energy feed molasses is highly beneficial. <br /><br />Sources of feeds and their nutritive values. <br /><br /> D.M.% C.P.% TDN % Phos. % Ca%<br />Crains (Energy conc) <br />Barley. 90 12 75 0.4 0.09<br />Sorghum. 90 10 80 0.35 0.05<br />Maize. 90 9 80 0.35 0.02<br />Meals. 90 Varies 65 0.4 0.6<br />Oats. 90 8 75 0.35 0.05<br />Protein conc. <br />Meat meal No.1 90 55 65 14 30<br />Cottonseed meal. 90 40 75 0.73 0.15<br />Peanut meal. 90 45 75 0.62 0.18<br />Hays. (Bulk and fibre) <br />Quality lucerne. 90 16-20 50-55 0.24 1.32<br />Grassy lucerne. 90 8-12 45-50 0.2 0.8<br />Grasses. <br />Paspalum. (Early growth). 20 12 60 0.3 0.4<br /><br />TDN- Total digestible nutrients.<br />DM- Dry matter.<br />CP- Crude Protein.<br /><br />The factors which should be consider while formulating the rations are:<br /><br />(i) Body weight of the goat.<br />(ii) Milk yield and its fat percentage.<br />(iii) Weather conditions.<br />(iv) Stage of gestation.<br />(v) Availability of forages and their feeding values.<br />(vi) Cost of feed.<br />(vii) The body weight and milk reduce in winter due to drainage of energy. So extra ration is needed to protect the body against winter. <br /><br />Daily nutritional requirement of an adult goat. <br /><br />S.No. Item of Diet Daily requirement<br />1. Dry matter. Intake of Dry matter/100 kg body wt.<br /> Maintenance 2.5 - 3.0 kg.<br /> Growth 3.5 - 4.0 kg.<br /> Pregnancy 3.0 - 3.5 kg.<br /> Lactation 3.5 - 5.5 kg.<br /> Meat and hair 2.5 - 3.5 kg.<br />2. Energy. For maintenance 360 gm S.e./50 kg body wt. <br /> For live weight gain 3 gm. S.e./gm wt. <br /> For milk production 350 gm S.e./kg of wt.<br /> 15% more energy for males.<br />3. Protein. For maintenance 20-30 gm Dep/50 kg body wt. <br /> For milk production 60-70 g/kg of milk.<br />4. Water. 450-700 gm/day for a goat weighing 19-20 kg.<br /><br /><br />The feeding schedule to the goats at various ages are as under:<br /><br />Age of kids No. of feeding Dam’s milk or cow milk Green feed Starter feed<br />1-7 days. With the dam Dam’s - -<br />8-42 days. 4 100 Ad lib Creep feed*<br />ad lib<br />43-60 days 3 100 Ad lib - do -<br /><br />*The creep feed should have 12-18% of DCP and 2-5 to 2.9 metal ME per kg. Feed. Jawar, Bajra, may be used to substitute 1/3rd cereal parts. Mixture of maize, barley/oat, groundnut cake and wheat bran, should be used. Linseed cake, sesame cake, or mustard cake may be used to replace groundnut cake and rice bran.<br />1 kg of T.D.N./day/100 gm body weight and D.C.P. requirement for maintenance for milk are 45-64 gm/100 kg live weight and 70 gm/litre of milk. Calcium and phosphorus requirement is 147 and 723 mg/kg live weight respectively. <br /><br />Daily feed required by goat. <br /><br />(a) Intake of dry matter. Dry matter (D.M) is plant feed without moisture. The intake of dry feed required by bucks and dry does, and lactating does according to live weight. For every 9 kg body weight intake increases by general practice is 0.3 kg D.M.<br />(b) Crude protein. For milking does, crude protein (C.P) should be 13% of the dry matter. Dry goats need only about 10% C.P. for maintaining body weight. Kids need greater than 17% C.P. for muscles to grow. <br /> <br />(c) Fibre. Feed should contain 18-30% fibre on D.M. basis. <br /> <br />(d) Energy. A 50 kg live-weight, adult goat needs:<br /><br /> T.D.N<br />For maintenance of body. 0.6 kg<br />For milk production (1.5 L) 0.5 kg<br />Total 1.1 kg<br />TDN- Total digestible nutrients.<br /><br />General practice is for 1% of body weight is required as energy for maintenance. <br /><br />And for every 600 mL of milk, goats require 0.1 kg energy.<br /><br />(e) Minerals.<br /><br />• Phosphorus (P) 0.4% of diet (D.M).<br /> <br />• Calcium (ca) 0.4 -0.8% of diet (D.).<br /> <br />• P:Ca ratio should be between 1:1 and 1:2.<br /><br />Conclusion.<br /><br />The goat farming economic depends upon the less input and better returns. The nutritional must prepare a goat feeds charts very carefully. The diet ingredients must be cheap and nutritionally balanced. The healthy produce good meat more milk and healthy off-springs. At the same time due to strong health goat suffer with less attacks of diseases. If we consider above factors. This brings a very profitable goat business nationally and internationally. <br /><br />Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com13tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-30614732588865401422007-08-23T02:18:00.001-07:002007-08-23T02:19:01.804-07:00NEEM IS A NATURAL PESTICIDENEEM IS A NATURAL PESTICIDE<br /> <br />BY<br />M.H. PANHWAR AND FARZANA PANHWAR<br /> <br /> <br />Printer-Friendly Format<br /><br />In 1992 the Forest Department advertised for allotment of many thousands of acres to parties interested in raising forest trees under the scheme called “Social-Forestry”. We also applied keeping in view that we would raise Neem trees on about 800 to 1000 acres and have a mini-industry for extraction of oils, especially azadirachtin from neem fruit, though leaves and twigs also yield similar oils in small quantities. <br />In 1983 we had already experimented on extraction of this oil from some neem trees growing wild on our farm. The process was primitive and 50 kg of twigs and leaves were chopped in an animal feed chopper into pieces of about 1/4 to 3/8, put in 2 drums each containing 100 liters of water and about 25 kg of this material. The drums were kept in the open in the May sun. The temperature of water rose to 131ºF (55ºC) at 3.00 p.m. One man kept stirring the mixture. <br />After 48 hours, the leaves were taken out, the mixture filtered and sprayed over one acre of land under roses, having been infected with various types of insects. It controlled all insects and fungal diseases. We did not have to repeat the spray for the next tow months. <br />Prior to this, we were spraying decis-D or a mixture of malathion and dimethoate every month. These chemicals were available at very cheap rates then and the cost of labor involved in harvesting leaves, chopping and preparing neem-oil mixture was high but we discovered that mechanized harvest and industrial process of extraction of oil would cost much less. If the raw material was available from 1,000 acres, a mini-industry and from 10,000 acres a regular industrial plant could be established. We further studied the spacing of neem trees, water and soil requirements, agronomical practices including application of fertilizers, and found that 100 plants per acre and a total of 1,000 acre area, could produce enough seed to justify a small plant in the fifth or sixth year. <br /> <br />A paying tree.<br />Neem can be raised economically as a forest tree and would pay the grower much more than acacia or eucalyptus trees, being planned under Social-Forestry by the forest departments. When trees start crowding in Year 8 or 9, if wood is harvested from alternate trees and alternate rows, the wood will fetch more money than acacia or eucalyptus annually. When they are again crowded in about 16 years alternate rows can be removed leaving 25 trees per acre. <br />We discussed the whole project with a FAO expert who was attached as advisor to the project being executed by the Forest Department in collaboration with the private sector. The allotment of land on a long term lease to the private sector is subject to the condition that 80 percent area would be under forest crops and the participants can grow any crop on the remaining 20 percent, be it fruit or crops. <br />This condition will be strictly enforced and loan and other facilities will also be available subject to that condition as definition of forest trees for the project includes only eucalyptus and acacia nilotica and no other forest tree. Thus we can grow neem tree only on 20 per cent and 80 per cent has to be under acacia and eucalyptus. <br />The neem oil (azadirachtin) industry would need about 10,000 acres under neem in a place like Sindh, where it would keep growing almost year around and even in winter the growth would slow down only partially, unlike Punjab where it may grow for only 8 months year and 15,000 to 20,000 acres may be needed there for a similar size industry. We thus will have about 50 per cent more output in terms of leaves twigs and fruit. High density planting as suggested above, will yield the same amount of fruit in the years, 8 or 9, as mature trees of low density planting will yield in year 25.<br /> <br />Neem as pesticides.<br />Neem probably is the world most efficient insect repellent with extracts from its fruit, kernels, leaves, and twigs, which yield a compound known as “azadirachtian” and which is systemic in action and has both insecticide and fungicide properties. The demand for Neem oil is already out-stripping supply. <br />The are plans for planting Neem in vast semi-arid, irrigated arid and tropical and sub-tropical lands. The developed countries are the first to have recognized its need and plantations have already been started in the various states of Australia, the leading being Queensland and Northern Territory followed by others.<br />Neem probably originated in South Burma and from there it was introduced in South Asia before Pleistocene (1.8 million years ago). The medical properties of Neem were known to both Aurevidic and Greek (Arabic) medical systems. The use of Neem tree as tooth-brush by crushing of end of a branch let having the thickness of a pencil, is common in the rural areas of South Asia and goes back many thousand years. <br />Today it is known that it contains world’s best known natural dentifrice for manufacture of toothpaste. <br />The Neem oil has been used for various purposes including skin care, soaps and etc., in South Asia. The leaves are boiled in water for extracting azadeirachtian and diluted in water; it is taken orally against many diseases and used as bath for skin diseases. Neem is related to mahogany and has beautiful hard wood of pink color, highly suitable for furniture. At an age of about 20 years, the tree produces wood which is surpassed only by mahogany, teak and shsham. One aspect of its is that once furniture is made from its wood, it keeps on darkening i.e., acquiring deep pink color with age. Its timber besides being durable is not attacked by termites. <br /> <br />Characteristics.<br />Trees can be planted 20 feet apart in 20 feet wide rows. Congestion will start in the year 9 to 10 and alternate trees in alternate rows can be removed leaving 54 trees per acre. Next congestion will start in the year 16 to 18 and every alternate row can be removed leaving 27 trees per acre. This will keep yield at the highest from Year 8 onwards Annual pruning can be processed separately or used as mulch. <br />The neem tree prefers well drained deep soil and sandy-loams, with ground water at 10 feet depth or more. It takes about five years to produce the first fruit crop, but with application of mulch, irrigating and nutrition feeding, it can produce a good crop in the third year. <br />While it is growing, leaves can be harvested at the time of pruning or shaping the tree and used as insecticide or mulch in orchards. Its tap root is capable of reaching ground water 8-10 meters deep and thus can survive the arid conditions for long time without irrigation. It can survive in an annual rainfall of 12” or 1-2 irrigation/annually but for high yields of leaves and seeds, it needs irrigation. <br />Its seeds are harvested by shaking the tree. The seeds which usually are about 2 cm long and 1.5 cm diameter, yield kernel of about 1.5 cm length, containing about 30 to 40 percent oil. Pulp is removed and being sweet, it attracts birds and children the yield from 5-6 years old tree could be 20 kg kernels, which would produce 6-8 kg of oil and the residue can also be processed or emulsion in water and used as insecticide or as fertilizer. With high density planting at 20x20 feet or 108 trees per acre, 100 acres can yield about 700 tons of oil for a pilot plant and 10,000 acres would provide 7,000 tons for a small plant.<br />The tree has the ability to stand frost, due to a very thick suberised bark layer and can easily survive desert condition temperatures over 50ºC. It is thus suited to the tropical and sub-tropical climate of Pakistan right up to 31ºN except the high hills.<br />Recent research shows that Meliaceae family has strong ability to repel insects and there may be some new comers besides neem; this includes cedars and mahoganies but their respective oil properties have yet to be studied. It seems that a number of other insect repellent plant species may come to light, but as it grows in tropical and sub-tropical climate, with its active ingredient azadirachtian and its ten or more analogue + isomers, it stands the best chance at least in South Asian conditions. <br />Besides Azadirachtin neem extracts contain other oils namely; salannin, meliantriol, nimbin, nimbidin, limonoids and many other minor ingredients. These oils have different effects on insects. They can also control various viruses of fruits, vegetables, field crops, livestock and may be human viruses. <br />Their effect on insects is not to kill them out-right, but rather disrupting or inhibiting development of eggs, larvae, and pupae, blocking moulting of larvae or nymphs, disrupting mating, repelling larvae and adults, deterring female from laying eggs, sterilizing adults or deterring their feeding or blocking ability to swallow and inhibiting formation of chitin. In these processes, the insect and their future generations are eliminated. <br />Neem oils affect at least 200 insect species some of which are resistant to conventional pesticides. These include most resistant insects like sweet potato white-fly, green peach aphid, cotton aphid, floral thrips, diamondback moths, leaf-minors, fruit-flies, house-flies, white-flies, horn-flies, face-flies, shoot-flies, various kind of mosquitoes, flees, lice, beetles, grubs, erinose mite of lychee and other mites, cockroaches, aphids, thrips, moths, ear-worms, cob-worms, boll-worms, army-worms, bud-worms, horn-worms, buck-worms, hoppers, bugs, ants, weevils, various larvae, beetles, various kinds of hoppers, green vegetable bugs, root nematodes, brown ant hoppers, scale insects, grubs and etc. <br />Neem leaf mulch snails, crustaceans, fungi, and aflotoxin. Neem is successfully used as insecticide in case of lice (human and animal) fleas, ticks and grain insects. Neem oil can also be used as fungicide against powdery-mildew and even some viruses. Neem oil is also helpful for human health and the oil is known to work as fungicide, anti-bacterial and anti-viral and for wound-heeling, dental treatment and Chaga’s disease. Internal vaginal application of neem oil has helped as birth control measures, replacing castor nut taken orally since ages. It also relieves pains and controls skin bacteria and fungus. <br />Neem oils is commonly used in soaps and cosmetics in India. Neem oil cake can be used as fertilizer as it is rich in nitrogen, phosphates, potash and micro nutrients. <br />It has been recognized across the world for new pesticides, which have no objection for being used in IPM (Integrated Pest Management) as it does not kill the predators of many insects and bees and thus is a friendly pesticide. On the other hand it attracts many beneficial insect species and butterflies, micro-wasps and bark hoppers, which become predators as well as pollinators of many fruit crops. Its leaf litter attracts micro-fauna which renew the soil. It increases the pH of acid soils and quickly raises it to about 7.0 or neutral soil. <br />Neems azadirachtian has the ability to upset the hormonal system of insects making their reproductive system ineffective for reproduction. The effect of spray lasts from a few days to about a month and the concentration used is from 0.01 – 0.10 percent. It is a true systemic biological insecticide and most suitable for Integrated Pest Management. <br />Neem tree while standing in an orchard does not keep insects away from other trees. However it attracts a range of insects, which can control pests on other trees as predators. <br /> <br />Plantations.<br />Neem tree was widely grown allover South Asia (Pakistan, India and Sri-Lanka), Burma and West Africa particularly Nigeria, but recently extensive plantation have been established in Saudi Arabia, Central and south-American tropics and sub-tropics including Haiti. Some multinational companies are funding neem plantation in Latin America. <br />In the 60s neem tree was planted as an ornamental tree along roads of various towns like Darwin, Elliot, Allis Springs and etc., in Australia, but now plantations have been extended to Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales. In 1990, 16,000 trees were planted in Queensland and some private farms are planting 250-450 trees on each farm in addition to normal crops. The pre – 1980 neem projects were ornamental or for timber but post 1980 projects are for pesticides. <br />Now besides South Asia and South-east Asia it has become naturalized in 50 countries of the tropics and sub-tropics including Mexico and East Africa. It has become the fastest selling tree species for desert regeneration and land reclamation in Iran, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Morocco, Tunis, Algeria, and Libya. It is out selling eucalyptus species in these countries. African and Saudi Arabian demand for the plant is met by a large number of nurseries in Italy. Saudi Arabia has already established more than 10,000 trees within a few years. Of the African countries beside Nigeria, Ghana and countries from Somalia to Marutinia, have already been planted neem trees. <br />Bangladesh, Burkina-Faso, Chad, Myanmar, Senegal, Thailand and Mali are being assisted by Denmark and France to set-up an international neem network. In Nicaragua neem trees have been introduced through a cooperative known as “COPINIM” helped by Germany, Austrlaia and Sweden. In 1995 they produced 200 tons of neem fruit and are expected to have 300 tons of fruit in the year 1997, when an economic industrial plant could be established. <br />The properties of neem as insecticide/pesticide were very well known in South-Asia and to protect libraries, neem leaves were put inside a few pages of each book and leaves were also scattered in wooden boxes or racks containing them. Neem leaves are also put in woolen and other clothes, quilts and grains in storage in the South Asia. <br />The first scientific work on neem as an insecticide was published in undivided India in 1929, but the world did not know about it until a German scientist found that locust did not visit neem tree during their worst attack in Sudan in 1959. Scientific study of neems properties was started by U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1972.<br />Many of the ingredients in neem extracts are distant relative of steroids. These include cortisones and birth-control-pills. The neem-extracts do not contain objectionable items like chlorine, phosphorus, sulphur and nitrogen and therefore their mode of action is different from that of insecticides commonly in use. The use of neem oil and use of its derivatives as insecticides was well established by 1980 and many U.S. companies procured patents on extraction, processes. The neem based pharmaceutical, cosmetic, detergents, insecticide, and fungicide and etc., would account for annual business of a score of billion U.S. dollars a year and this being so, some 34 patents have been registered in Western Europe and Northern America, with the U.S. being the biggest some U.s. pesticides companies are financing neem projects in the Central America. W.R. Grace and Co., has established to seek a patent on seed derivative “Margosan-O”.<br />Some U.S. plant breeders have also patented neem seeds. Since neem originated in South Asia and there are 14 millions neem trees in India alone and approximately the same number in Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri-Lanka combined, there have been protests against the patent rights, as neem originated here and therefore patent rights have no legal standing. In terms of economics, neem can out-do any other forest tree including mahogany, teak and shisham which take years to mature for quality timber and neem can start paying its seed from the third year onwards. <br />Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-36360073117209409212007-08-23T02:17:00.001-07:002007-08-23T02:17:45.193-07:00MODERN REPRODUCTIVE METHODS USED TO ENHANCE GOAT PRODUCTIONMODERN REPRODUCTIVE METHODS USED TO ENHANCE GOAT PRODUCTION<br /><br />BY FARZANA PANHWAR<br /><br />Introduction. <br />In the year 1996 the total goat population in Pakistan was 41166,000 heads, while in Sindh it was 9734,000 heads.<br />In the year 1999-00 total goat population in the country was 47426,ooo heads, while the male population, one year and above was 6010,000 heads, the female one year and above was 25755,000 heads and young stock less than one year was 15661,000 heads.<br />In the year 1999-00, in Pakistan the gross production for milk from goat was 31,804,000 tonnes, while goat milk consumption was 25,566,000 tonnes.<br />In the year 1999-00 in Pakistan the goat meat production was 218,000 tonnes/million, goat skin production was 23.3 million No., goat hair production was 18,000 tonnes.<br />In the year 1999-00 in Pakistan the total fodder production was 2,64,900 hectares out of which in Sindh was 365,700 hectares. The total fodder production in Pakistan was 22.7 per hectare in tonnes, out of which in Sindh ,fodder crop production was 25.0 per hectares in tonnes.<br /><br /><br />General<br /><br /><br />The goat is a source of meat, milk, skin and fibre . Cross breeding among: Angora for Mohair production, Saanen, Alpine, Logenberg, Boee, Anglonubium, for milk and meat, are common practice. <br /><br />If we improve environment, management, nutrition, selection of breeding and disease control .We can improve the economics of goat farming. Although improvement in reproductive efficiency , will increase the economic viability of goat enterprise. The reproductive efficiency depends on the length of the duration of pregnancy, litter size, embryo/foetal development , survival viability , growth of new born, suckling period, puberty age and duration of reproductive life. These methods can be improved by the use of modern reproductive tools which results into more kids per genetically superior bucks and does. These modern tools are describe as under:<br /><br />Synchronisation of oestrus/ovulation in cyclic (Oestrus) goats:<br /><br />Synchronisation of oestrus/oestrous cycle is a technique, which is used to bring large number of animals in a flock into overt heat at the predetermined time. The technique offers an opportunity to increase the efficiency of animal production in different ways. The benefits of heat synchronisation in goats are as under:<br /><br />(a) It reduces the time needed for detection of oestrus. <br /> <br />(b) It helps in conjunction with a procedure for controlling the time of ovulation, to permit insemination on a predetermined schedule. <br /> <br />(c) It enables the feedings of goats in to uniform groups. <br /> <br />(d) It helps in synchronising breeds to shorten the duration of kidding in a flock.<br /> <br />(e) It reduces the mortality at the time of parturition by avoiding breeding during extreme seasons. <br /> <br />(f) It helps in reducing the neonatal mortality.<br /> <br />(g) After successful control of breeding to permit weaning, fattening and marketing of uniform group of animals. <br /><br />By the help of control breeding, it bring proper weaning, fattening, growth,uniform in the herd, which provide better market price. <br /><br />( h) This help in the use of embryo transfer technique. <br /><br />Progestogens alone and progestogen + gonadotropin in , have been used for a long time. Recently prostaglandin and its analogues have been found very effective for synchronisation of oestrus. Keeping males with the females to induce synchronised oestrus and ovulation also used. Oral, subcutaneous, intra-muscular or intra-vaginal routes of administration are used. <br /><br />Attempts to synchronise oestrus in Barbari, Black Bengal and Jamunapari does by administering progestogens, progestogen + gonadotropin in combination, and prostaglandin by using different routes (Oral, S/C, 1/m and intra-vaginal pessaries). Melengestrol acetate (mGA), used @ 0.15 mg/animal for 16 days in Barbari and Black Bengal goats, used by the scientists of I.V.R.I and C.I.R.G., synchronised 80-95% animals within 4 days of feeding. The fertility of the heated goats was not affected. Research is needed to find out a cheap, simple and effective heat synchronising technique.<br /><br />Induction of oestrus/ovulation in acyclic (anoestrus) goats:<br /><br />Delayed puberty and prolonged lactation and seasonal anoestruses in goats ultimately increases the age , at first kidding and the inter-kidding period, resulting into low life time production. Productivity in goat can be increased if the age at puberty and seasonal/lactation anoestrous period can be reduced. The use of inducing oestrus in anoestrous females increase the overall production efficiency. Induction of oestrus/ovulation in anoestrous goats can be accomplished by the use of gonadotropins and steroid hormones . Progestogesn alone and/or in combination and FSH and oestradiol for induction of oestrus in anoestrous Barbari, Black Bengal and Jamunapari goats was tried. An oestrous induction rate of 80-90% and a conception rate of 90% achieved by the use M G A @ 0.15 mg/animal for 16 days. This helps in increasing the reproduction life of goat. <br /><br />Superovulation:<br /><br />Goat is the main source of meat. To get maximum number of kids, superovulation becomes necessity for increasing the overall fertility of the goat. <br /><br />The objective of superovulation is to increase the yield of viable ova.<br /><br />Several methods are used for inducing superovulation in goats. These are:<br /><br />(a) Practice of flushing for some weeks before mating. <br /> <br />(b) Selection based on litter size. <br /> <br />(c) Use of hormones. <br /><br />The use of hormones like: gonadotropins of pituitary origin (FSH and LH) or from the serum of pregnant mares (PMSG) ,are used as superovulating hormones. Gonadotropins in combination with progesterone or prostaglandins are used for induction of superovulation in goats. <br /><br />Artificial insemination. <br /><br />The artificial insemination is a successful technique in goat production, but its depends upon the understanding of applied reproductive physiology like selection of breeding goats, semen collecting method, frequency of semen collection, semen evaluation, diluents, dilution rates, optimum number of live and normal spermatozoa per inseminating goats, oestrous behaviour, stage of heat and insemination technique. <br /><br /> Sexual maturity in males.<br /><br />Sexual activity in male is determined by placing them with oestrous female daily during morning and evening hours from the age of 6 months and onwards. Males showing active courtship tendency for sexual mount or natural service are separated from the rest of flock, while remaining males given further chance for expression of sexual desire, till the majority have shown complete sexual mounting. <br /><br /> Training of goats.<br /><br />Sexually active goats should be trained for semen ejaculation in artificial vagina, daily, during morning hours by exposing them to an oestrous female fixed in a service crate. <br /><br /> Methods of semen collection.<br /><br /> Artificial Vagina (A.V) and electro-ejaculation are the most common accepted method for semen collection of goats . Artificial Vagina ( A.V.) method is being used as universal method for routine semen collection, whereas electro-ejaculation is generally used for collecting semen from untrained and valuable sires incapable of service. Good quality semen sample from breeding goats be made by collect semen once daily from native and half breeds and once or twice is quick succession (3-5 minutes) after every alternate day from exotic and higher cross-bred goats .<br /> <br /> Semen evaluation.<br /><br />Irrespective of semen collection procedure and frequency of semen collection, each ejaculate is examined for its quantity and quality in terms of volume, colour, consistency, motility, sperm density, total sperm number per ejaculate, per cent live/dead and normal/abnormal spermatozoa. The parameters are positively correlated with fertility. A good quality semen is cream coloured with thick consistency containing excellent wave motion. Sample containing with less than +4 motility, 3000 million sperm density and 80 per cent live spermatozoa should not be used for breeding purposes. <br /><br /> Dilutors and dilutions rate semen.<br /> <br />Immediately after collection and physical evaluation, semen samples are diluted with a suitable diluent like processed cow milk, egg yolk citrate glucose. Dilution rate is adjusted in such a way that a minimum of 60-80 million live and normal spermatozoa are available per inseminating dose (0.1 ml). This is easily met with dilution rate of 1:1 to 1:5 depending upon the sperm density of semen sample. <br /><br /> Preservation of semen.<br /><br />Goat semen are stored successfully up-to 48 hours at 4-7°C with satisfactory sperm motility and fertility. Semen preservation by this procedure done carefully the entire cooling process be completed in 1.5 to 2 hours time.<br /><br /> Frozen semen.<br /><br />Long term storage of goats semen become possible through deep freezing technique. Milk tris and egg yolk citrate glucose diluents containing glycerol as cryoprotective agent are suitably used as extender for freezing buck semen either by straw or pollet method. Straw method is more common. Straws filled with diluted semen and frozen over liquid nitrogen vapour can be stored for years in liquid nitrogen (-196°C). Post-thawing motility and fertility of frozen goats semen is relatively lower than the freshly diluted semen. <br /><br /> Detection of heat.<br /><br />Oestrous goats in a breeding flock are detected by parading an active teaser/approned goat for about half to one hour daily, during morning and evening hours. Females allowing male to be mounted quietly should be separated from the flock. Oestrous goats detected during evening and morning hours should be inseminated twice in same oestrous. <br /><br /> Insemination technique.<br /><br />Insemination is applied by lifting the hind legs of females at an angle of 60° from the ground. Locate the split like opening of the cervix with the help of sterilised glass speculum lubricated with liquid paraffin and deposit the semen over opening of the cervix with the help of inseminating pipes fitted with rubber bulb at the top. Remove the speculum and pipette together. <br /><br /> Fertility.<br /><br />Overall conception rate with freshly diluted semen varies from 60-85 per cent in 2-3 oestrus cycles. Deep cervical and intra-uterine insemination has given about 15-20 per cent higher conception rate. Relatively lower conception rate has been reported with chilled and frozen goats semen. <br /><br />Goats semen is highly susceptible to cold shock.<br /><br /> Embryo transplantation.<br /><br />Embryo transfer, it refers to a technique by which embryos are collected from a female called the donor and than transferred, for development, to another female known as the recipient. This technique permits exploitation of superior female genotype, giving more off-springs from the same genetic donor than would arise under normal conditions of breeding. <br /><br />In order to make the technology economically viable and sound. These suggestions are as under:<br /><br />(a) Development of a simple non-surgical embryo collection and transplantation technique. <br /> <br />(b) Oocyte and embryo culture. <br /> <br />(c) In-vitro fertilisation. <br /> <br />(d) Long-term preservation of embryo under liquid nitrogen. <br /> <br />(e) Import of exotic germ plasma in the form of embryo.<br /> <br />(f) Production of kids of desired sex.<br /> <br />(g) Production of identical kids.<br /> <br />(h) Production of chimera.<br /> <br />(i) Production of hybrids.<br /> <br />(j) Production of clones of genetically superior animals.<br /><br />A number of tests are used for detecting pregnancy at en early age. The choice of the technique depends on the species, stage of gestation, cost, accuracy and speed of diagnosis.<br /><br />No. Technique used Description<br />a) Non-return to oestrus. Post breeding/insemination non-return to oestrus gives an idea of pregnancy setting. During the breeding season, most of the animals return to oestrus within 17-23 days after fertilisation failure. At the end of breeding season, non-returns to oestrus are no longer use to defect pregnancy.<br />b) Rectal palpation. Not possible in goat due to small size of pelvis. <br />c) Visual assessment. Visual assessment through abdominal blotment shows advance stage of pregnancy.<br />d) Laparotomy. Needs surgery. It gives 90-95% accuracy in goats of 5 weeks gestation.<br />e) Laparoscopy/Endoscopy. Presence or absence of pregnancy can be detected by direct observation of the uterus and ovaries through laparoscopy/endoscopy. Pregnancy can be detected at 40 days of gestation in goats. <br />f) Radiography. It has limitation due to it can only be performed in a hospital.<br />g) Ultrasonic technique. It is good and produce immediate results and can be adopted for field use. <br />h) Vaginal cytology. It is impracticable under field conditions pregnancy diagnosis. Although pregnancy can be detected up-to 95% of animals at 40 days of gestation.<br />i) Hormonal assay. This test is based on the level of pregnancy dependent hormones in blood, milk or urine radio immunoassay and competitive protein binding and ELISA technique used for the detection of hormone. With this technique pregnancy is diagnosed at earlier stage showing accuracy of 95%.<br />j) Administration of hormones. Costlier with physiological side effects, it is accurate and detects pregnancy at an early stage. <br /><br />The best way of diagnose pregnancy with 60-100% accuracy after 30-60 days post conception done with the help of ultrasonic equipment. This technique is simple and can be applied at field. conditions with nominal price. <br /><br />Induction of parturition. <br /><br />This technique is used for induction of parturition, must be compatible with the survival and the normal development of the new-, without deleterious effects on lactation and on maternal behaviour. The various chemicals used for this purpose are cortico-steroid, oestrogens and prostaglandins. Vetesterol alone, vetesterol + oxytocin, dexamethasone alone and dexamethasone + vetesterol used at full term as well as 3-4 days before term in goats at CIRG.<br /><br />Infertility problems. <br /><br />Infertility problem in goats is caused due to various reasons. These are as under:<br /><br /> Infertility in males.<br /><br />Infertility in males is an abnormalities of testes. The main abnormalities of the testes are: testicular atrophy, testicular degeneration, cryptocchidism, orchitis, epididymitis etc. A male suffering from any of the diseases show inability to serve the female and absence of sperm in the ejaculate. <br /><br />Genital tract of a male can be infected with many different bacterial, viral, and chlamydial agents. Brucellosis is one of the major bacterial infection, which results into infertility in male this disease can be transmitted from one male to other male through copulation with female previously served by infected male, Animals suffering from such disease should be segregated immediately. Treated by antibiotic like chloromycetin and aureomycin.<br /><br />It can also occurs due to nutritional deficiency like protein, phosphorus, copper, iodine and vitamin A leads to retarded sexual development, delayed puberty and low level of semen production resulting infertility.<br /><br /> Infertility in females.<br /><br />In females, the problems of infertility are anoestrus, repeat breeders, embryonic mortality, genital defects and abortions.<br /><br /> Anoestrus.<br /><br />When a female does not exhibit heat, the condition is known as anoestrus. This happen due to change in environment, nutritional deficiencies, lactational stress and age. Low level of energy (nutrition) suppresses oestrous activity causing anoestrus. Mineral deficiencies like phosphorus, manganese also cause anoestrus. Vitamin (A and/or E) deficiency may be leads to anoestrous conditions. Old age can also cause anoestrus. <br /><br />The goats showing anoestrous symptoms can be cured by the use of:<br /><br />a) Extra nutrition.<br /> <br />b) Co-Cu tablets 1 tablet/day for 15 days followed by tonophosphan injection @ 2.5 ml.1/M alternate day for 10 days. <br /> <br />c) Fertivest tablet 1 tablet/day for 5 days. <br /> <br />d) Hormonal treatment with 0.15 mg. M.G.A orally per day for 12 days followed by antex injection 48 hours after the last day of feeding. <br /><br /> Repeat breeder.<br /><br />Is one which return to service repeatedly after being bred to a fertile male. These are two reasons for this like fertilisation failure and early embryonic mortality. This also happen due to genital tract abnormalities, besides infections, hormonal disbalances, hereditary and managemental factors. Treatment is infra-uterine injection of streptomycin before service. Sometimes tonophosphan injections on alternate day for 5 days also show improvement.<br /><br /> Infections of genital tract. <br /><br />Genital tract of goat can get infection with bacterial, viral, mycotic and chlamydial agents. Some of them are potential pathogens and infection with them results in abortion in pregnant animals and may subsequently lead to infertility. These infectious diseases are common like: Brucellosis, Vibriosis, Chlamydial abortion.<br /><br /> Brucellosis.<br /><br />In Brucellosis, abortion takes place between third and fourth month of pregnancy. In such case vaccination of all female kids at 6-12 months of age, at least one month or more, before the first breeding.<br /><br /> Vibriosis.<br /><br />It is not common in goats although abortions occur in late stage of pregnancy. <br /><br /> Salmonellosis. <br /><br />It is an acute contagious disease characterised by metritis and abortion. Abortions occur during the third trimester of pregnancy.<br /><br /> Foot and Mouth Disease.<br /><br />Food lesions occur with bacterial infection. The infection of foetus with virus results in death of the foetus and animal becomes infertile. <br /><br /><br /> Chlamydial abortion. <br /><br />It is viral disease. Among the pregnant animals, it causes abortion. <br /><br /> Mycoplasmosis. Mycoplasma infections cause abortions which lead to infertility.<br /><br /> Nutritional deficiency. <br /><br />The deficiency of protein, minerals phosphorus, cobalt, manganese, copper causes infertility problems. <br /><br />Conclusion. <br /><br />The modern reproductive methods helps in having a more kids in life-time, reduced motility, healthy kids, genetically superior breeds. This way it helps to increase the economic benefits of goat farming. <br /><br /><br /><br />Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-35781751936213987092007-08-23T02:16:00.001-07:002007-08-23T02:16:54.149-07:00Economic and Environmental Sustainability of Mineral Resources in Sindh. Pakistan.Economic and Environmental Sustainability of Mineral Resources in Sindh. Pakistan.<br /><br />Abstract.<br /><br />Pakistan lies between longitudes of 60°-70’ East and latitudes 20°N and 37°N. In its north it have Himalayas, which has boundary with Previous USSR and China. On its west is Afghanistan and Iran. South -West have Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf on to south-east has Indian territories. Pakistan has 41 districts. From agro-geographical point it is divided into following regions. <br /><br /> Mountainous north and north western region. <br /> The plateau of Quetta city and Kalat., which includes Kohistan of Sindh.<br /> The plains of Indus basin. <br /> Sand and sand dune tracts of Cholistan and Thar.<br /> Marsh lands and delta region.<br /><br /><br />Major minerals of Pakistan are: gypsum, barite, magnesite, soap stone, fluorite, marble Kaolin , China clay, fire clay and fullers earth.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Mineral Resources Found in Sindh.<br /><br />The gas, chromite, coal, gypsum ,limestone and salt were discovered long time ago, with more intensive exploration, petroleum and other mineral have been found recently 20th Century . The rich deposits of copper, iron, chromite, lead, zinc have been discovered in large quantities , as well as a good quantity of coal has also be found in Thar in the province of Sindh. the production of barite, bentoite, various types of industrial clays ochre and silica sand has also found in recent years. Lead and zinc deposits are found in Lasbela area in province of Balochistan, chromite deposits in Khuzdar, and Zhob coal deposits in Thar and iron ore in Punjab province. Large number of antimony deposits are found in Balochistan, chromite found in Peshwar. iron ore deposits are located in <br />Kalabagh, Lengrial, Chilghazi and Chiniot area. around 14 million tonnes of lead and Zinc deposits are discovered in Balochistan.<br /><br />The large number of useful mineral and raw elements are found in Thar are as under. <br />• Germanium (Ge)<br />• Gallium ( Ga)<br />• Humic acid.<br />• Benzene Extract<br />• Granite of many different .colours.<br />• Kaolin in Nagar Parker Tulka.<br /><br />( Ref. World Bank)<br /><br />Introduction. <br /><br />The mineral wealth of Sindh is very limited due to the nature of sedimentary rocks and lack of igneous rocks. <br /><br /> Survey In 1984 showed the mineral reserve of Sindh as under:<br /><br />S.No Minerals Reserves.<br /> Chromite Large reserves.<br /> Iron ore 430 million tonnes.<br /> Bauxite 74 million tonnes<br /> Copper 412 million tonnes<br /> Antimony 21 ,000 tonnes<br /> Molybdenum Large reserves<br /> Sulphur 800,000 tonnes.<br /> Lime stone Large quantity.<br /> Marble , sand ,rock ,salt , clay for ceramics Very large quantity.<br /> <br />Copper ore,iron ore,sulphur,gold, silver,and molybdenum , Large quantities found nearer to Boluchistan ,.in Boluchistan may be these ore found in Sindh <br /><br /><br /><br />General. <br /><br />Minerals are naturally formed chemical elements or compounds having a definite range in chemical composition and usually a characteristic crystal form. <br /><br />Minerals are natural chemical elements or compound having a limited range in chemical composition, distinctive properties and form which reflects its atomic structure. Minerals crystal-system and identification is studied by X-ray diffraction method. But common minerals are recognised by their physical properties like: colour, lustre, cleavage, crystal shape and form, hardness, specific gravity and magnetism. <br /><br />Since the oxygen and silicon form 75% of earth surfactant rocks, it means silicates is the important part of rock-forming minerals. The silicate mineral structures is a tetrahedral arrangement of four oxygen ions around silicon ion. The tetrahedral is jointed by a chemical bounds to form chains, sheets, or three-dimensional frame work, these three structures causes many of specific properties of minerals. The silicate minerals such as biotite, augite, hornblende and olivine that are rich in iron and magnesium have black or green colour are designated ferro- magnesia minerals. Non-silicate rock-forming minerals are the carbonates (calcite and dolomite) evaporites (gypsum and halite), iron oxide minerals (nematite, limonite, and magnetite). <br /><br /><br />Mineral fuel and iron are basic need of the country. Copper, lead and zinc are mostly used in industries. While mineral used as fertiliser are phosphates, potash, nitrates and sulphur. While gold and silver is used in industrial development. nickel, manganese, fluorspar, vandium, tungsten, asbestos, mica, mercury, graphite, antimony and tin are used in various industries. There are between 2000 to 2500 mineral ore , but only about 150 are considered common in industries.<br /><br />Coal Resources in Pakistan.<br />Per capita energy consumption in Pakistan is 180 kg coal equivalent. Its production in the year 1970/71 was 12, 87,000 tons. But this coal is a very poor quality, lignite to sub-bituminous, present at lower territory sequence, and is around 50-60 million years old. It contain high ash volatile matter and sulphur, having low heat value. Although coal is one of principal minerals, its total reserves are 400 million tons. Coal mines exist in Sindh, Balochistan and Salt Range (Cis-Indus and Trans-Indus). Coal is used in brick and lime burning, ceramic industry, chemical industry and steam locomotives. This coal is lignite to sub-bituminous of Territory Age. <br /><br />In 1983 the coal reserves were 640 million tons. But it had low calorific value, with high ash and sulphur content.<br /><br />Coal in Sindh.<br /><br />Sindh province has total coal resources of 184 billion tonnes. The quality of coal is mostly lignite-B to sub-bituminous A-C.<br />The five coal reserves fields in Sindh , including Lakhra coal field, Sonda, Thar, Badin, Metting-Jaimpir coal field are estimated more than 96.297 billion tonnes. Thar deposits relate to 40% of total cover area and total reserve in the area are above 200 billion tonnes. Lakhra coal field in the Dadu cover an area of 500 square kilometre exploration carried out less than 200 square .km. Sonda coal field cover an area of 1500sq.km out of which only 635 sq. km have been explored.<br /><br />The coal field discovered recently has coal of lower sulphur and high calorific value and it account for 95% coal of Sindh.<br /><br />Instituted arrangements to develop Sindh coal ( Ref. World Bank)<br />• Mines and mineral development department, Sindh established on 22-08-2001.<br />• Sindh coal Authority established under the Sindh coal Authority Act, 1993 governs through a Board headed by separate departments for mines and Mineral Development, Sindh.<br />• Task Force headed by the Prime minister, Islamic Republic of Pakistan<br /><br /><br />Coal Resources of Pakistan in the Province of Sindh. <br /><br />Coal Field Coal Resources ( Million Tonnes) <br /><br />Measured Indicated Inferred Hypothetical Total<br />Lakhra 244 629 455 - 1,328<br />Sonda-Thatta 60 511 2197 932 3,700<br />Jherruck 106 310 907 - 1,323<br />Others 82 303 1881 - 2266<br />Thar 3,407 10,323 81,725 80,051 175,506<br /> <br />Sub-Total 3,899 12,076 87,165 80,983 184,123<br /> <br />( Ref. World Bank)<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Coal Deposits in Sindh<br /><br />Lakhra District. Dadu. 1.328 billion tonnes.<br />Sonda- Jherruk. District- Thatta 5.512 billion tonnes.<br />East- Indus. Distrct. Thatta 1.5 billion tonnes.<br />Jhimpir- Metting District- Thatta 0.161 billion tonnes<br />Badin 0.0161 billion tonnes<br />Thar 175.506 billion tonnes<br /><br /><br /><br /> 1) Lakhra coal field.<br /><br />Is found in District Dadu, 16 km to the West of the Khanot railway station on Kotri- Dadu section of Pakistan Railways. It cover an area of 200 sq .km. It show variation in thickness from 0.75 meter to 2.5 meters. Average thickness 1.5 meter. Coal rank of lignite-A to Sub-Bituminous -C. The coal is dull black contain amber resin flakes and about 30% moisture. It tend to crumble longer exposure to atmosphere and often susceptible to spontaneous combustion. The analysis results are as under:<br /><br />Lakhra Coal field ( Ref. -World Bank)<br /><br />Distance from Karachi 193 km<br />Area 1309 sq. km<br />Coal Reserves 1.328 billion tonnes.<br /><br />Location 176 km North of Karachi or<br /> 65 km North West of Hyderabad<br />Coal Field Lakhra coal field.<br />Geological Horizon Palaeocene<br />Type of coal Sub- Bituminous to Lignite.<br />Calorific Values 2,570 to 4,260 k. Cal.<br />Working system Room and Pillar method<br />Leased area ( Two leases ) 5,096.49 acres<br />Total coal resources production 38.82 million tonnes<br />year 2001 to year 2002 176,228 tonnes.<br /><br /><br />Chemical Analysis of coal.<br /><br />Moisture ( AR ) 28.9 %<br />Ash ( AR ) 18.0 %<br />Volatile Matter ( AR ) 27.9 %<br />Fixed Carbon ( AR ) 25.2 %<br />Sulphur ( AR ) 4.7 to 7.0 %<br />Heating Value ( Average ) 4,622 to 7,554 Btu/lb<br /><br /><br />• Lakhra coal has high content sulphur and ash for cement use low ash, low sulphur coal is pre-requisite, so this coal is not suitable for this purpose.<br />• Thar coal has calorific value 11.10 to 17.64 MJ/kg. Average 13.22 MJ/kg belong to low-medium calorific value, easily grinned, poor thermal stability, strong reactivity to CO² , strong clinker, rich Tar and high humic acid, other used are gasification, liquefaction, power generation and humic acid extraction. ( Ref. World Bank )<br />• The total reserves of the deposit have been estimated to be 1328 million tonnes with 244 million tonnes measured 629 indicated and 455 tonnes inferred. Its annual production is more than one million tonne<br /><br /><br /> 2) Thar Coal Field.<br /><br />It have resources of 175 billion tonnes. Thar is located 400 Km South -East of Karachi. The coal field extend 9,000 Sq .km out of which 356 Sq .km are studied by Geological Survey of Pakistan. Providing 9 billion tonnes coal in four blocks. The main coal bed thickness range from 12 to 21 meters, at an average depth of 170 meters upper 50 meters being lose sand. The coal sample results show as under:<br /><br />Thar Coal Field ( World Bank )<br /><br />Thar Desert Area ( Approx.) 22,000 sq .km<br />Coal Field Area 9,100 sq. km<br />Total Drill holes. 217 nos.<br />Coal deposits. 175.506 billion .tonnes.<br />Coal reserves Billion tonnes<br />Thar coal analysis Thar coal analysis<br />coal quality Lignite A-B<br />Moisture ( AR) 46.77%<br />ash ( AR) 6.24 %<br />Volatile matter ( AR) 23.42 %<br />Fixed carbon (AR) 16.66 %<br />Sulphur ( AR) 1.16%<br />Heating value ( AR) 5.774 Btu/lb<br />Heating value (dry) 10,898 Btu/lb<br />* AR-as received. -<br /><br /><br />Thar Coal Finding Chinese Report ( World Bank )<br /><br />• Gas- analysis does not reveal availability of Methane gas.<br />• Coal dust- each coal bed possess explosive natural dust.<br />• Self combustion trial of coal- all the coals are of self-combustion type.<br />• Stripping Ratio - 5.30 upward.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />3) Indus-East coal Field ( World Bank )<br /><br /><br />Explored area 616 sq. km<br />Drill holes 16 nos.<br />Coal reserves. 1.5 billion tonnes<br />Coal rank Lignite-B to sub .Bit-B<br />Ash ( AR) 15.2%<br />Sulphur ( AR) 2.6%<br />Calorific value ( AR) 6,300 to 8000 Btu<br />Thickest coal bed. 2.40 meters<br />Moisture ( AR) 33.1%<br />Volatile Matter ( AR) 27.7 %<br />Fixed carbon ( AR) 23.9%<br /><br />4) Sonda- Jherruk coal field.<br /><br />This contains over one billion tonnes reserves of lignite quality.<br /><br />5) Thatta- Sonda- Jherruk Coal Field ( World Bank )<br /><br />Distance from Karachi 150 km approx.<br />Identified Area 1206 sq. km<br />Shallow West coal Bed 37.8 m<br />Deepest coal Bed 265.28 m<br />Coal reserves 7.112 Billion tonnes<br />Chemical Analysis Chemical Analysis<br />Moisture ( AR) 31.23 - 34.72%<br />Volatile Matter 27.9 %<br />Fixed carbon 25.2 %<br />Ash ( AR) 7.69 to 14.7 %<br />Sulphur ( AR) 1.38 to 2.82 % <br />Heating value ( AR) 6,780 to 11,029 Btu/lb<br /><br />6) Meting Jhimpir Field.<br /><br />This field is located 80 miles north of Karachi near Jhimpir and Meting railway station. It cover an area of 350 sq. miles .Reserves are 28 million tonnes.<br /><br />Sindh Coal authority ( Ref. World Bank ) function are explain as under.<br /><br />Exploration of coal includes:<br />• Exploration.<br />• Development.<br />• Mining.<br />• Processing.<br />• Utilisation.<br />• Research and Development.<br />• Co-ordination of Infrastructure Development.<br />• Conduct problem oriented research.<br />• Development of indigenous technology.<br />• Promotion of investment Sector<br /><br /><br />In Pakistan five regions are rich in minerals. These are as under:<br /><br /><br />S..No. Area Minerals<br />1 The salt range and Makarwal region. Rich in cock, salt ,gypsum and coal.<br />2 The Potwar Plateau <br />Rich in oil.<br />3 <br />The north-east Balochistan and adjacent part of Waziristan. Rich in coal, chromite and marble.<br />4 <br />Lower Indus Plain Rich in natural gas and coal.<br />5 The Chitral area<br /> Rich in Iron<br /><br /><br />Pakistan is poor in metallic minerals and power resources, but has rich deposits of few non-metallic minerals. Although Pakistan have many mineral deposits which are yet not expedition and explored. So we have big future for export of these minerals<br /><br />Mineral Potential in.Pakistan<br /><br />On the basis of tecto- megmatic environments and associated metallic mineralization, following metallogenatic provinces in Pakistan are delineat.<br /><br />1) Shield slopes Area ( Industrial and Non- Metallic Minerals )<br /><br />The eastern shield slope zone has vast reserves of limestone, gypsum and rock salt along with commercially exploitable resources of dolomite and Cis-Indus salt range. In the northern marginal mass of Indo-Pakistan large reserves of magnetite, soapstone, phosphate and marble of various type occur.<br /><br />2) Shield Area.<br /><br />Major part of the provinces of the Punjab and Sindh comprises of the shield rocks of Precambrian age, famous to host world class precious and recently, in Chinnot, a large oxide zone having hematite has been discovered to cap a sulphide zone having anomalous values of precious Meta indicate possibility of a larger base-precious metal deposit in the area. Regional geophysical survey has also defined much bigger an area of exploration.<br /><br />3) Island Arc Environment.<br /><br />• Porphyry and Epitherma-deposits hosting copper-molybdenium-iron-gold deposits in Chagai District, in the Balochistan province.<br />• Copper, iron, lead zinc, and other base metals in Kohistan district, NWFP.<br /><br />4) Ophiolites and Ophiolitic Melanges.<br /><br />• Chromite deposits in parts of Lasbela, Zhob in Balochistan, Kohistan, North Wazirstan, Mohmand and Malakand Agencies in the provinces of Northern Areas.<br />• Manganese in Lasbela and Northern areas.<br /><br /><br />5) Collisional Granitoids and Associated Rocks.<br /><br />• Antimony, arsenic, copper, lead, zinc, silver, mercury, gold, etc., as hydro-hermal veins, fissures and cavity fillings in Citral District, NWFP<br />• Tin and tungsten in anatectic granites and contact carbonate rocks in Chitral, Hazara, Kohistan in NWFP and Northern Area.<br />• Lithium in younger pegmatite in Chitral.<br /><br />6) Rifiting.<br /><br />• Rare earth and radioactive minerals in carbonates in NWFP.<br />• Copper, tin, lead, gold, etc. in Paleozoic sediments in the salt range, Punjab, and Abbottabad-Sherwan and other areas in Hazara, NWFP.<br />• Antimony and mercury in the Chaman transform zone in Balochistan.<br /><br />7) Shelf Carbonates.<br /><br />Barite-flourite associated lead-zinc-silver deposits in Khuzdar and Lasbela areas in Balochistan.<br /><br /><br />Reserves of principal minerals in Pakistan.<br /><br /><br />- Marble (a ragonite/onyx). Very large deposits.<br />- China clay. 4.9 million tons. <br />- Chromite. Fairly large deposits.<br />- Coal. 580 million tons.<br />- Crude oil. 139 million US barrels.<br />- Fire clay. Over 100 million tons. <br />- Fuller’s earth. Fairly large deposits.<br />- Gypsum/Anhydrite. 350 million tons.<br />- Iron ore. Over 430 million tons. <br />- Lime stone. Very large deposits. <br />- Rock salt. Over 100 million tons. <br />- Silica sand. Very large deposits. <br />- Copper. 412 million tons. <br />- Dolomite. Very large deposits. <br />- Dauxite/laterite. Over 74 million tons. <br />- Barite. 5 million tons. <br />- Soap stone. 0.6 million tons. <br /> <br />Source: Pakistan Economic Survey, Year 1986-87, Table 8.1<br /><br /><br />The Minor Minerals sources found in Pakistan are as under:<br /><br />Alum<br /><br />It is found in Kirthar Nits.<br /><br />Antimony.<br /><br />The chief source in stibnite. Its reserves are 12,000 tons. The alloy is used in chemical industry. It is located in krinj (Kamalgol), Qila Abdullah, and Pishin It is also found in Kamalgol mines in Chitral. Its production is 33% per year. Traces of radioactive minerals found in N.W.F.P and D.G .khan District.<br /><br />Asbestos.<br /><br />Found in north of Muslim in .Zhob district.<br /><br />Barite.(Baryte).<br /><br />It is Barium Sulphate. It is used in oil-well drilling, manufacture of plants, glass, insecticide and barrium compound. In the year 1964-65 its annual production in Pakistan was 10,000 tons, the year 1974-75 it was 20,000 tons. In the year 1985-86 it production was 42,000 tons. Its deposit located 10 miles south-west of Khuzdar at Gunga, which is about 1.4 million tons. The deposit at Kundi about 40 miles north-east of Bela is 13,000 tons. At Kohala deposts are 130,000 tons, small deposits are located at Bankhiri,, 10 miles east of Bela and Faquir Muhammad at 22 miles east of Haripur.<br /><br /><br />Bauxite.<br /><br />Found in Hazara .District. The total reserve in Pakistan are 74 million tons. The rocks are Aluminous rather than bauxite. These are found in Muzaffarabad, Kotli in Azad Kashmir, Central Salt Range, Lorali District in Balochistan. The mine at Khakhan-China spring in Lorali Distrct its production is 2,000 tons annually.<br /><br />Bentonite.<br /><br />Its annual production is 1,000 to 1,500 tons. It is used in oil drilling, foundries, steel mills, clarifying , sealing reservoirs. Its deposits found in central salt range at Qadirpur Bhilmor and Bhadrar, in eastern salt Range at Rohtas Dariala, at foothills of Azad Kashmir at Bhimber Mawa Kanch and Samwal-Pothi-Kharota..<br /><br />Carbonate Soda.<br /><br />Present in large quantity in Nara Taluka of Khaipur District, Nawabshah, Umerkot and Shah Bandar.<br /><br />Celestine<br /><br />It is present in stone hills of Kohistan, is used in manufacturing fire works<br />The estimated reserve is 300,000 tons. It contains about 83% Strontium Sulphate. In the year 1984-85 it was 650 tons. Celestite is used in signal rockets and flares, tracer bullets, transportation warning fused and fire-works. It also used in Strontium compound Ceramics, luminous paints, plastics industries. Its deposits are found in Thano Bula Khan and Kohistan area of Sindh., is also found in Daud Khel in the Western Salt Range.<br /><br />China clay (Kaolin).<br /><br />Kaolin found in Nagar Parkar, in Tharparkar Distect Ahl in Hazara Distrct and Shah Deri in Swat. It composed of hydrous aluminium Silicate minerals. Is used in cement, paper, rubber filter. It contains 16-31% Clay . In the year 1984-85 its production in Pakistan was one thousand tons.<br /><br />Fire clay.<br /><br />Its total reserve is 100 million tons .In the year 1984/85 its production in Pakistan was 77,000 tonnes. It .Is mainly used in refractories, in potteries, chemcials and fillers. It reserve are located in Surghar Range, Kishore Range , Trans-Indus area. It also found in Eastern and Western Salt Range.<br /><br />Chromite.<br /><br />In the year 1976/77, its production in Pakistan was 5,000 tons. In the year 1970/71 its deposit was 27,300 tons. These are located at Lasbela in the South and South Waziristan in Muslim in Zhob valley, Chagai, Kharan and Ras Khoh range north of Hari Chand, village in charsadda District. Chromium is used in manufacture other metals ,stainless steel, high speed tools, precision instruments, dyes and photography and also in chromium plating of other metals.<br /><br />Copper.<br /><br />Its deposits are located in the Eruptive Zone of Western Balochistan about 25 miles north of Koh-i-Tuftan Railway station. Iranian border is 25 km(15 miles ) to its west and the Afghan border 42 km(26 miles ) to its north. Copper deposits area is called Sulphide valley.<br /><br />Fluorite.<br /><br />It reserves are 95,500 tons. Which are located at KohiI-Maran and Koh-i-Dilband about 50 miles south of Quetta. Fluorite used in glass, steel, chemical and enamelling cooking utensils.<br /><br />Fuller’s earth.<br /><br />Is found in soft yellowish clay form, mostly present in Ranki and Sebdi Nodasin Southern Sulaiman Range. Thano Bula Khan , Laki range, Kot Diji and Padhrar deposits. Ganjo Takar hill, Iherruk, Thatta and Rohri hills. It is used for cleaning purposes. Also used in oil drilling, foundries, steel mills, oil filtering calrifying and sealing reservoirs. Annual production is 15,000 to 20,000 tons.<br /><br />Gemstones.or Precious stones.<br /><br />Emerald, occur in sea green and transparent, is a costly stone. Found in Charbagh-Alburani near Mingora, Swat. Ruby is transparent deep red found in Hunza. Aquamarine blue to sea green in colour, topaz white colour and tourmaline blue found in Dassu, Skardu and Katlong in Mardan.<br /><br />Gypsum. <br /><br />They are white or pink in colour. The salt is overlain by gypsum, dolmite and clay. It total production in the year 1977 was 164,000 tons. It is located in Rakhi Mumh in foot hills of Sulaman Mountains, west of Dera Ghazi Khan, Khewra, Dandot, Daud Khel. Also at Saiyiduwali in Kishori Range and Chamalong in Marri-Bugti hills. They are mostly light grey, white and reddish pink in colour. It is mostly used in cement, plaster of Paris, prefabricated construction board and fertiliser marking, paints and rubber. The total reserve are 350 million tons.<br />It is found in Kirthar mountains and the Banks of Nai Gaj. It is found in abundant quantity in the form of lime stones..<br /><br />Extraction of Main Minerals in Pakistan.<br /><br /> <br />Items 1994-95 1995-96 1995-96 1996-97 %CH<br />Coal 3010 3465 2358 2448 3.86<br />Natural Gas 17.2 18.89 15.03 14.80 -1.53<br />Crude Oil 19.86 21068 15.75 16.10 2.22<br />Marble 46.7 458 308 360 16.88<br />Chromite 13 27 17 20 17.65<br />Dolomite 227 185 144 166 15.28<br />Gypsum 620 420 290 425 46.55<br />Limestone 9680 9740 6012 7289 21.24<br />Magnesite 5227 14981 20702 4652 -77.53<br />Rock Salts 890 958 739 816 10.42<br />Sulphur 510 20 30 - -<br />Barvet 20 14 12 21 75.00<br /> <br /><br />Figures of gas in thousand million cubic meter, crude oil in million barrels, magnesite in tonnes sulphur in tonnes and other in thousand tonnes. <br />( Source Federal Bureau of Statistic Government of Pakistan )<br /><br />RESERVES AND EXTRACTION OF PRINCIPAL MINERAL(2002-03)<br /> <br />Name of Minerals Rserves Unit<br /> Production,<br />2002-03)<br />Antimony - Tonnes -<br />Marble Very large deposits 000 Tonnes 1066<br />China clay 4.9 million tons " 40<br />Celestite - Tonnes 402<br />Chromite Fairly large deposits 000 Tonnes 31<br />Coal 185 Billion Tonnes " 3609<br />Dolomite Very large deposits Tonnes 340864<br />Fire Clay Over 100 million tons Ooo Tonnes 117<br />Fuller’s Earth Fairly large deposits " 15<br />Gypsum 350 million Tons " 424<br />Lime Stone Very large deposits " 11880<br />Magnesite - Tonnes 2645<br />Rock Salt Over 100 million tons 000 Tonnes 1426<br />Slica Sand Very large deposits " 185<br />Ocher Tonnes 6733<br />Sulphur 0.8 million tons " 19402<br />Soap Stone 0.6 million tons 000 Tonnes 66<br />Barytes 5 million Tons " 41<br />Bauxite/Laterite Over 74 million Tons Tonnes 67536<br />Iron Ore Over 430 million Tons " 11483<br />Crude Oil 184 million Barrels M.Barrels 23.46<br />Natural Gas 492 Billion cu.metre 000 MCU mtrs 28.11<br /> <br />1. Enegy Suppies in Pkaistan (2002-03) = 47060706 TOE<br />2. Production of Crude Oil in Pakistan (2002-03) = 23458000 Barrels<br />3. Domestic Production of Petroleum in Pakistan ) = 8888340 Tonnes<br /> (2002-03)<br />4. Total Petroleum Energy Products Consumption) = 16451954 Tonnes<br /> (2002-03)<br /><br />Source UNCTAD yearbook table.4.1<br />Trade Structure of fuel and ores and minerals , by commodity group ,Thousands of dollars.<br /><br />Year 1998 Export Import<br />Total 8,437,162 9,312,500<br />Fuel 26,796 1,494,575<br />Ores & minerals 15,749 201,666<br />Year 1999 <br />Total 8,312,714 10,159,053<br />Fuel 76,753 2,112,077<br />Ores and minerals 21,960 213,352<br />Year 2000 <br />Total 9,129,914 11,069,724<br />Fuel 131,467 3,612,691<br />Ores & minerals. 233,263 233,263<br /><br />The year 2001 to 2004 are not available.<br /><br /><br />Gems and Precious Stones found in Pakistan.<br /><br />S. No Name S. No Name S. No Name<br />1 Actinolite 11 Hessonite 21 Rodingite<br />2 Agate 12 Idocrase 22 Rutile<br />3 Aquamarine 13 Jadeite 23 Ruby<br />4 Amazonite 14 Kunzite 24 Serpentine<br />5 Azurite 15 Kyanite 25 Spressartine(gamet)<br />6 Beryl 16 Marganite 26 Spinel<br />7 Emerald 17 Moonstone 27 Topaz<br />8 Epidote 18 Pargasite 28 Tourmaline<br />9 Garnet(alamandine) 19 Peridot 29 Turquoise<br />10 Garnet ( green,grossular) 20 Quartz(citrin & others) 30 Vesuvianite.<br /><br />Note. No reliable estimates of reserves and production are available. Estimated export of raw and cut/polished gemstones ( mostly emeraid, ruby, topaz, aquamarine, peridot and tourmaline) are stated to be in excess of U.S $ 200.00 million per annum.<br /><br />Industrial Usage of Minerals.<br /><br />Minerals Uses<br />Coal Brick kilns, power generation.<br />China Clay Ceramics, electrical insulators and white cements.<br />Celestine Paints ,optical glasses, drilling mud and military usage.<br />Dolomite Metallurgical flux, paints and pigments.<br />Fire clay Fore brick and refractors<br />Fuller’s earth Textile, cooking oil , pesticide, soap, leather.<br />Granite Decorative and building material<br />Gypsum Cement, soil re-conditioner and plaster of pares.<br />Lime Stone Building material, cement, steel mill, chemical, sugar factories, and soil conditioner.<br />Silica Sand Glass, abrasives and furnaces.<br />Chalk Paints and modelling<br />Flint Stone Rolling mills and refractors<br />Lake salt Tanneries, household, chemical, soap and dyes.<br />Laterite Sulphate resistant cement, pigments and colours<br />Marble Decorative building material<br />Sand Stone Cement and pottery.<br />Gravel Construction material.<br /><br /><br />( Reference. Pakistan Economist.)<br /><br />In order to exploit mineral resources in Pakistan. Government has established following agencies.<br /><br />Pakistan Mineral Development Board. <br /><br /> Resource Development Co-operation establish in 1974, it function to investigate and develop copper mines and all other minerals and marketing them.<br /> Gemstone Corporation of Pakistan Ltd, establish in 1979 to develop gemstone sector.<br /> Mineral Development Board at provincial level. To co-ordinate the work of various federal and provincial agencies. <br /> Mineral Co-operation Board at federal level. <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Pakistan contains some Metallic minerals like, Iron, Chromate and Antimony.<br /><br /><br />Basalt.<br /><br />There is 300 feet thick layer of under Khirthar near Ranikot font.<br /><br />Iron Ore deposits.<br /><br />Hematite ore contain 40-45% iron. The largest deposit in Pakistan are found in Mazari Tang, Marai Bela and Samana Range in Kohat area. Which is around 300 million tons are found near Kalabagh in the Surghar range and near Sakesar in the Salt range. This iron is mostly Chichali and Kutch type having only 30-35% iron in it. Some 3 million tons deposit having 55-65% iron in it , found in Southern Chitrl. Total reserves in Hazara District are about 100 million tons. Small amount is also found in Langrial Village in Haripur tehsil about 20 miles south of Abbotabad. These are have iron content 9-50% . Small amount also found in Galdanion about 10 miles north-east of Abbottabd. This contains only 14-46% iron in it. About 3 million tons better iron ore having 55% iron in it found in Chagai District near Dalbandin. Limonite and Siderite deposit having 31% ion located at Marwat range near Pezu. In the year 1980-81 its production was only 1,000 tons. It is also found in Kotri Taluka and around the Jherruk hills. <br /><br />Hematitic clay stone and silt stone occur at Kakul, Galdanian and Chure Gal, it contain 20% iron. At Langrial, low grade Oolitic hematic contains 9-30% iron. At Rakhimunh in Dera Ghazi Kahn, limonite and Siderite deposits are found, having 37% iron. At Dommel Nissar located about 20 miles south of Drosh in Chitral contain 45% iron. Chakuli Bakht area in Zarimure Mountain contain 45% iron. Chilghazi and Baluchap Kundi near Dalbandin. Thhe North Chagai Arch. The Ore is magnetitite it contains 33-55% iron.<br /><br />Limestone.<br /><br />Pure limestone is Calcium Carbonate. In the year 1977 its production in Pakistan was 3 million tons. It is present as a Sedimentary rock part located in Pezu, Moghalkot, Kohat, Nowshera in N.W.F.P, Lorali, Harani in Balochistan, the salt Rang, Potwar Plateau, Margalla Hills, Zinda Pir in D.I.G.khan, and Ganjo Takkar, Murli Hills, Mango Pir, Cape Monze , Kot Diji and Ranipir in Sindh. It also found in Trans-Indus salt range at Daudkhel and lower Indus Plain near Hyderabad. In Sindh Limestone used in chemical and glass factories also as an ingredient in cement manufacturing, bleaching powder, soap, paper and paint industries. In the year 1985/86 it production in Pakistan was 6.3 million tons. It is us used for lime and building making.<br /><br />Manganese.<br /><br />It is found in Axial Belt at Lasbela, in Chagai District of the Eruptive Zone and at Galdanian. In the year 1980-81 its production in Pakistan was 84 tons.<br /><br />Marble.<br /><br />It is one of the country foreign exchange earning. In the year 1980/81 its production in Pakistan was 114,000 tons. In 1985/86 ,122,000 tonnes. In 1970/71 , 26,000 tons. Its name is Aragonite. The white crystalline, with uniform texture can be compare with Carrara, marble of Italy. It is also present in grey, yellow, green, red ,brown and in various colour patches . It deposits are found in Mullagori, area of Khyber Agency, Maneri in Mardan Distrct, Swat , Dalbandin Hills of Campbellpur Distrct, Muzaffarbad, Mirpur, Azad Khasmir, Multagari road in Peshwar. The Ghaudai Tarko marble deposits are located at the boundary of Swabi, Mardan District and Swat.Onyx (Travertine) found in Eruptive zone in Chagai area.Marble is also found in Thano Bula Khan area but not as good quality as quetta or Khyber Agency.<br /><br /><br />Rock salt and Brine.<br /><br />It is called Halite. In the year 1947/48 its production in Pakistan was 163,000 tons and , in 1984/85 it increased up to 573,000 tons. Its located salt Range escarpment, from Junate to Mari Indus. Important miners are Khewra, Warcha, Kalabagh and Jatta. At kewra its production was 220,000 tons. The worked area thickness is 60 ft. Khewra is the terminus of Makarwal branch. The Warcha is located 10 miles north-west of Gunjital railway station, its production is 40,000 tons, its having five seams, with thickness of 50 ft. The Kalabagh salt field is located at the right bank of Luni Wahan nullah. At Trans-Indus extension of slat Range, Jatta, Bahadurkhel and Karak salt deposits are located. In which Jatta and Karak rock have 100 ft, while Bahadurkhel rocks are 350 ft thickness. In 1970/71, salts derived from brine and salt lakes was 344,000 tons. Salts derived by evaporation of sea water, these practiced is done in Tharparkar area, Maripur, in Sindh Makran, Lasebela Coasts, and Dharyala near Khewra. These brine and salt used in potash and fertiliser factories, soda ash, bicarbonate of soda, caustic soda, soda of laundry, textile and tanning industries.<br /><br />Salt.<br /><br />Sindh does not have any salt rocks, but salt is available from sea-water and salt lakes in Tharparker district.<br /><br />Soap stone.<br /><br />Its total reserve is 0.6 million tons, annual production is 22,000 tons. soap Stone is steatite, which is a variety of talc. Its deposit located in Axial Belt. In Sherwan located in Abbottabad, Zhob and Safed Koh near Parachinar. It is used in ceramics, face powder and as a filler in soap industry.<br /><br />Sulphur.<br /><br />In the year 1971/72 its production was 2,750 tons, In the year 1984/85 its production was left will only 884 thousand tons. Its reservoir located at northern Kirthar at Sanni, about 75 miles South-east of Quetta. This reservoir is about 59,000 tons, this is about 45% grade. The other reservoir are located about 300 miles West of Quetta at Koh-i-Sultan, . This is 738,000 tons about 50% grade. Sulphur is the basic part of Sulphuric acid, is used in paints, dyes, rayon, pulp, fertiliser, refining petroleum, non-ferrous metals and explosive material and in pest and diseases control as wettable sulphur..<br /><br /><br />Geological Survey of Pakistan.<br />Metallic and Non- Metallic Mineral Resources ( in metric tonnes)<br /><br />Deposit Type Mineral Preserve size Annual production .Average.<br />Metals Antimony Small 35<br /> Chromite Small to medium 27,458<br /> Iron ore Small to medium 24,322<br /> Manganese Small 655<br />Non- Metals Agglomerate Large 366<br />Building & Aragonite/Marble Large 497,317<br />Dimension Stones Basalt Large 217<br /> Building Stone Large 16,011<br /> Conglomerate Large 276<br /> Ebry Stone Medium 209<br /> Granite Large 5,676<br /> Gravel Large 19,684<br /> Onyx marble Large 28,780<br /> Ordinary Stone Large 1,887<br /> Sand / Bajri Large 92,670<br /> Sand Stone Large 2,255<br /> Serpentine Large 4,204<br /> State Stone Large 108,182<br />Clay Ball clay Small 1,371<br /> Bentonite Small 19,983<br /> China Clay Small to medium 61,403<br /> Clays* Large 2,934,218<br /> Fire clay Medium 124,003<br /> fuller’s Earth Medium 18,446<br />Chemical, & Asbestos Small 60<br />Fertiliser & Barite Large 26,002<br />Industrial Minerals Bauxite Small 22,360<br /> Brine Medium 55,903<br /> Calcite Small to medium 15<br /> Celeste Small 838<br /> Chalk Small 7,945<br /> Dolomite Large 276,668<br /> Field Spar Small 32,012<br /> Flint Stone Small 73<br /> Fluorite Small 579<br /> Gypsum Large 384,513<br /> Lake Salt Small 16,035<br /> Laterite Small 21,532<br /> Lime Stone Large 8,697,573<br /> Magnesite Large 4,535<br /> Mill Stone Small 1,257<br /> Nepheline syenite Small 70<br /> Ochres / Red oxide Medium 12,780<br /> Orpiment Small 29<br /> Phosphate Small 1,074<br /> Pumice Small 1,577<br /> Quartz Small 485<br /> Quartzite Small to medium 1,457<br /> Rock salt Large 1,212,366<br /> Silica Sand Large 157,300<br /> Soap Stone Medium to large 46,486<br /> Sulphur Small 527<br /> Talc Stone(Talc) Small 260<br /> Trona Small 3,446<br />fuels coal Large 3,105,715<br /> Natural gas 41,978893 923,758<br /> (Trillion cubic feet) 26,98237 million CFT<br /> Crude Oil 765.237 23,195,048<br /> (million barrels) 300.203 US Barrels<br /> Uranium N.A N.A<br />** Ochres, red ochres and Red Oxide. <br />CFT Cubic Feet. <br /><br /><br /><br />Production of principal non-metallic minerals in Pakistan in selected years (thousand tons).<br /><br />Minerals 1947-48 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1984-85<br />Brite. - - 3 21 21<br />Gypsum. 15 94 167 554 400<br />Magnesite. - - 648 397 3,137<br />Rock salt. 163 210 350 514 573<br />Soap stone. - 1 4 28 17<br />Sulphur. - - - 403 884<br /><br />Source: Economic Survey of Pakistan 1986-87 Table 8.2 and other sources.<br /><br />In 1970/71 mineral production contributed less than 0.5% of the G.N.P. The index of mineral production rose from 100 (1964/5) to 122 (1971/2), a slow rate of growth when compared with the industrial sector.<br /><br /><br />Natural gas.<br /><br />Its production in the year 1959/60 in Pakistan was 25,750 million cubic ft. while in the year 1971/72 it was 127,075 million cubic ft. It was found in Zin , Uch, , Mari, Golarchi, Khaskheli, Mazarani, Pirokoh and Laghari., and Dhullian. And khairpur kandhkot, sari, jacobabad nd sehwan Taluka of Sindh .The gas found in Pakistan having 73% content of methane. Its biggest reservoir was found in Sibi District, which cover 75 sq. miles, about 37.5 % gas production used in power generation, 19.3% in fertiliser factories, 26.0% in textile, 14.0% in other industries, only 3% used in domestic purposes.<br /><br />Natural gas is located nearly 40 natural gas fields and reserves estimated over 31 trillion cubic feet. While country consumption is 7 trillion cubic feet. Country average production is 1500 million cubic feet per day. Mari gas field supply 290 million cubic feet per day, Kandh kot gas field present supply of 30 Mcfd, Pirkoh gas field daily production is over 200 Mcfd , Loti gas field producing over 40 Mcfd and Adhi gas field produce 18 Mcfd of gas and 62 Tpd of liquefied petroleum gas as well as over 300 Bpd of natural gas liquid (NGL)<br /><br /><br />Energy supply in Pakistan (percentage share).<br /><br />Source 1980-81 1984-85 1985-86<br />Oil excluding export. 36.7 40.7 40.2<br />Gas excluding feed stock. 41.6 35.4 35.0<br />Hydroelectricity. 15.8 17.1 18.4<br />Coal. 5.3 5.9 5.5<br />Nuclear. 0.23 0.4 0.6<br />LPG. 0.3 0.5 0.4<br /><br />Source: Economic Survey of Pakistan, 1985-86. Table 8.2, and 1986-87 Table 8.2.<br /><br />The Economic survey of Pakistan in 1997 the mining growth was 6.8% ,while the out put of coal, crude oil and natural gas, which carries 79%, weight in mineral sector will grow by 3.8%, 1.9% and 8.7% respectively.<br /><br />Natural oil Resources.<br /><br />In the year 1971/72 the crude oil production in Pakistan was 2.9 million barrels. Pakistan have large number of sedimentary rocks. Which have petroliferous members. Few sites are explain as under:<br /><br />Khaur,<br /><br />It is located 54 miles south-west of Rawalpindi in District, Campbellpur. The stratigraphic and structural traps consist of grey stone and red shale.<br /><br />Dhulliam field.<br /><br />It is located 10 miles north-west of Khaur. This is the one of the biggest oil field in the country. It is also a source of gas production. It covers about 36 sq. miles, oil is obtained from the Lani and RaniKot horizones of the basal Murree beds.<br /><br />Jaya Mair oil field.<br /><br />This structure is narrow anticlone oil-producing horizon, Sakesar limestone. The oil is heavy asphaltic oil.<br /><br />Balkassar oil field.<br /><br />Is found at west of Joya Mair in Jehelum District. The field is gentle anticline, having two Eocene limestone, oil producing horizons. But oil is rich in asphalt.<br /><br />Karsal oil field.<br /><br />It is located very near toward north west of Balkassar. <br /><br />In Campbellpur district, Tut, Kot Sarange and Mayal oil fields are founds.<br /><br />Recently large number of oil-fields have been developed in Sindh, where work is still under process. Nari, Tajedi, Mazari, Turk, Dhulian, Joya Maris, Meyal, Toot, Adhi and Fimkassari, Khaskheli, Laghari and Tando Alam.<br /><br />Field-wise location, year of discovery and production of crude oil in Pakistan 1980-81 and 1984-85 (thousand US barrels).<br /><br />Field Location Year of discovery 1980-81 1984-85<br />Khaur. Potwar. 1915 2 3<br />Dhulin. Potwar. 1935 123 9<br />Joya Mair. Potwar. 1944 181 87<br />Balkassar Potwar. 1946 280 184<br />Toot. Potwar. 1968 515 925<br />Meyal. Potwar. 1968 2,271 1,395<br />Adhi. Potwar. 1978 57 399<br />Dhurnal. Potwar. 1984 - 2,166<br />Fim Kassar. Potwar. 1978 - 10<br />Khaskheli. Lower Sindh. 1981 - 1,161<br />Laghari. Lower Sindh. 1983 - 2,188<br />Tano Alam. Lower Sindh. 1984 - 995<br />TOTAL - - 3,567 9,522<br /><br />Source: Energy year book, 1985, Table 2.1 and 2.2<br /><br /><br />Domestic production and total consumption of petroleum in Pakistan and percentage of domestic production to total consumption in selected years. <br /><br />Year Consumption <br />(thousand metric tons) Domestic production<br />(thousand metric tons) Domestic production as percentage of consumption<br />1949-50 817 99 12<br />1959-60 2,413 258 11<br />1969-70 3,820 461 12<br />1979-80 4,151 479 12<br />1984-85 6,616 1,278 19<br /><br />Source: Economic Survey of Pakistan, 1980-81 and Energy Year Book, 1985.<br /><br />Lignite products are: Electricity, briquettes, pulverised, lignite, fluidized, bed lignite, coke, substitute natural gas, and fuel. <br /><br />Mineral resources utilisation future work.<br /><br />• Power plant to be established.<br />• Underground coal gasification projects.<br />• Use of coal by cement industry.<br /><br />Strategies of work. <br /><br />• Geological investigations and studies.<br />• Infrastructure development.<br />• Promote private investment.<br />• Appropriate co-ordination.<br />• Assist the investors.<br />• Conduct all geo-technical studies, hydro -geological studies to boost this sector.<br />• Determine most economic ,efficient, and reliable technology to operate the coal mines<br />• Exploitation of indigenous coal, which will lead self reliance.<br />• Contains shifting of people from rural to urban centres.<br />• Poverty alleviation.<br />• Sustainable power generation programme.<br />• Stop deforestation.<br />• Gasification, liquefaction, briquetting and pulverisation of coal.<br /><br />Ministry of Petroleum and natural resources achievements.<br /><br />• Foreign direct investment of US$ 1 billion in the petroleum sector.<br />• Gas production increased by 1 billion cubic feet per day from new discoveries.<br />• US$ 800 million per annum saved through replacement of furnace oil with supply of indigenous gas to power plants.<br />• Contribution of gas in total energy mix increased from 37 to 50%.<br />• 22 petroleum exploration licenses granted including 20 onshore petroleum concessions and 2 offshore sharing agreements.<br />• Oil and gas regulatory Authority (OGRA) established to protect consumers interest.<br />• 5,50,000 vehicles converted to CNG which are serviced by 500 CNG stations.<br />• LPG production doubled.<br />• Petroleum sector emerged as major contributor to national budget.<br /><br />Ref.- Ministry of Petroleum and natural resources government of Pakistan.<br /><br /><br />Sui Southern Gas company Ltd. Achievements.<br /><br />• System network capacity doubled ( 600 to 1200 MMCFD)<br />• Gas supplied to 125 new towns/villages in Sindh and Balochistan benefiting over 400,000 population.<br />• Special projects being implemented under the President’s/Prime Minister’s directions for supply of gas to Ziarat, Kalat , Sohbatpur Khangarh, Jaffarabad , Jacobabad, Dadu and Shikarpur.<br />• 90,000 new gas connections provided to domestic, commercial and industrial consumers benefiting 600,000 persons.<br />• Facilitating $ 32 million project of 400 tons LPG per day through private sector on build own operate ( BOO) basis to enhance country ‘s LPG supplies by 40%.<br /><br />Ref.- Sui Southern Gas Company Ltd. Pakistan.<br /><br /> Introduction WTA Technology to get its benefits.<br /><br />• Benefits from WTA Technology.<br />• Energetically very efficient.<br />• Quasi-emission free drying.<br />• Self-sufficient in term of steam.<br />• High safety standard ( inert atmosphere)<br />• High drying capacity ( continuos process)<br />• Release of evaporated water as an almost solids-free condense.<br />• Lignite drying done due to extract water for other utilisation, nearly double the calorific value and raise efficiency of power station.<br /><br />Benefits of indigenous fuel/coal industry.<br /><br />• Self-reliance.<br />• Reliable and less expensive fuel. generation of massive economic activities.<br />• Direct and indirect employment and business avenues.<br />• A sustainable power generation programme poverty alleviation.<br />• Massive saving in foreign exchange, contain shifting of population from rural to urban area.<br /><br />Ref.- Harnessing of coal resources of Sindh Province-Dec.12, 2003. World Bank.<br /><br /><br /><br />The constrains in mineral Industry in Pakistan.<br /><br />In Sindh due to the nature of sedimentary rock and lack of igneous rocks, so the availability of minerals is limited.<br /><br />• Pakistan hasonly few non-metallic minerals.<br />• The number of major minerals are only 25-30 numbers.<br />• The quality and quantity of few of them is not known , their economic feasibility has yet not studied.<br />• The Infrastructure required for their exploitation does not exist.<br />• Mining is less important sector of economy in Pakistan.<br />• It forms 0.5% GNP and minerals play weak role in Industrial development in Pakistan.<br />• There is no Industry for refining chromite ore, so high cost of production comes its way of production., and exploitation.<br />• A major constrain for all development in the difficulty of finding adequate water for industrial plants their workers.<br />• The bulk of production comes from small privately owned mines, those are lacking funds..<br /><br />Conclusion.<br /><br />Since Pakistan is still is under -developed. We do not have new and advance technologies and equipment to exploits our mineral resources and use them properly in industries. We still have many source of deposits, not yet exploited, there are major hindrance is the lack of funding, non-availability of drinking water for industrial workers, the quality and quantity of these minerals need advance technologies and re-finning industries of these mineral are very few.<br /><br /><br />Results.<br /><br />There are lot of scope in mineral industries development in Pakistan. Once it developed properly Pakistan improve its economic position and bring better development and Sustainable growth of the Country.<br /><br /><br />References.<br /><br /> K.U.Kursehy; A Geography of Pakistan , Fourth edition, Oxford University Press; 1977-1978; 199p.<br />• Mrs.G.Sylveshter, Standard Geography of Sindh; Universal Book Depot; 1960; 94p.<br />• Richard F.Nyrop; Pakistan a Country study; 1984; Library of congress Cataloguing in Publication Data; 372p.<br />• Fazle Karim Khan; A Geography of Pakistan; 1991; 245p<br />• B.I.C.Johnson; Pakistan; Heinemann; 1979;214p.<br /><br /><br />Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> <br />.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />IFarzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-38816834816909722552007-08-23T02:14:00.000-07:002007-08-23T02:16:06.602-07:00MANAGING WATER RESOURCES IN RAPIDLY GROWIN IN CITIES OF PAKISTANMANAGING WATER RESOURCES IN RAPIDLY GROWIN IN CITIES OF PAKISTAN <br /><br />BY FARZANA PANHWAR <br /> <br />Printer-Friendly Format<br /><br />INTRODUCTION<br />In Pakistan large metropolises like Karachi, Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan, Peshawar, Hyderabad and Sukkur get water from the river Indus having salinity of about 150 ppm in form of various salts and non harmful. Cities like Quetta get supply from ground water and part of Karachi also gets stored water from Hub river reservoirs. Islamabad gets water from a lake filled by rainwater, the problem with water supply with ground or store rainwater is high calcium carbonate accumulated from adjoining water bearing strata. The cities have risen so fast that one has to put-up with whatever water is available atleast for the present.<br />CONSTRAINTS OF THE GOVERNMENT<br />Water supply lines have laid down over 40-50 years back and careless contractors and irresponsible engineers have late faulty water supply lines which leaked in surrounding over years and when there is pressure in the water line reduced due to pumping or lack of water from the surroundings leaked-backed in the water supply lines. This water contains many pathogens, salts, soil-dirt, nitrate from decaying roots of trees, roots, shrubs and grasses. It is not possible to replace 100% lines and even it was possible there is no guarantee that there would be water-tight. The only way out is the water is properly filtered by the individual consumers, boiled for re-use. Government does have over-head water-tanks in different localities and pathogen can be killed by various devices including ultraviolet light. But again pathogen could be added between over-head tank and consumers out-lets. Individual house-hold have to be trained. <br />In metropolis like Karachi having over 10 million people. The area is divided into five districts and at one time total political representation of Karachi came from an ethnic group belonging to two district to favour their own people they diverted water to the two districts, re-designed the water inlets to there areas and leaving only 33% for rest of the areas. Thus there is water shortage which only partially meet by supplying water in tank lorries. Tankers charge people unofficially two fold and some times they supply drainage water from industrial areas containing excess quantity of lead and heavy metals besides pathogens, they also supply ground water which has high pH and high salts occurring in the soils and also pathogens. Karachi is already facing serious problem of hapititus-B, kidney stones, gall bladder-stones, stomach ulcers, dysentery, diarrhoea and other serious diseases caused by polluted water.<br />The problem of the government is to educate people to overcome above obstacle and also to train the house-holds how to solve the problem.<br />PROBLEMS<br /> <br />The city water-supply is designed at 40 imperial gallon/head/day, cities are not getting half as much water as.<br /> <br />There is a competition between agriculture and domestic need. Pakistan being an agriculture country already has shortage of water for the purpose, same is the case with industry.<br /> <br />SOLUTIONS<br /> <br />Solutions lies on conservation of water at all levels. The agriculture and industry should resort to sprinkler, trickle and modified methods to irrigation instead of flood irrigation. The water is so saved should be used for bringing extra land under cultivation as intensity of cultivation in Pakistan is far below 150?, as planned.<br /> <br />Industry should recycled its water as far as possible and reused it. <br /> <br />City water drainage should be recycled for agriculture and ground-water recharged after removing hazardous chemicals and pathogens, Pakistan cities have vast agriculture land surrounding them and drainage water could add many million acre feet of water to surrounding waters. Water saved from irrigation requirements can be diverted to cities and industry. <br /> <br />Special training courses need to be designed and imparted to various stake holders namely; water supply and drainage engineers, and adminstrators, farmers to use properly the drainage and industry recycled water, households for carefully handling water from the tape line to get-rid of pathogens and farmers to learn new methods of irrigation to safe water.<br /> <br />Since at present water-tax collection is based on area of the properly and not actually consumption, meters have to be installed and consumers charge as per charge of water lifted. <br /> <br />In order to collect water tax private contractor should be engaged on contact basis and they may be required to collect 100% taxes. <br /> <br />Charges of water for agriculture, industry and domestic need may be fixed on the basis of quantity consumed. In case of agriculture type of crop grown may be an additional criteria for fixing water charges.<br /> <br />Government have to provide water for charitable purposes, likes, mosque, churches, religious centres, hospitals, parks and play grounds. <br /> <br />Water from these sources is invariably mis-used by neighbours. Quantum for each categories may be fixed.<br /> <br />To carry-out these operations large number of facilities would be needed. Private sector is more efficient than the government functionaries, and private contractors should replace the government functionaries. <br /> <br />Government functionaries should limit themselves to supply of water to the main lines but not to the distribution lines.<br /> <br />Meters should be instal at all out-lets and rechecked with water drawn from the main lines into distributories lines.Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-1470657895280517432007-08-23T02:12:00.000-07:002007-08-23T02:14:18.480-07:00MAN MADE DESERT RING-AROUND HYDERABAD.MAN MADE DESERT RING-AROUND HYDERABAD. <br /> <br /> <br />Brick kilns surround the city of Hyderabad in a form of complete ring. Fuel for kilns is cheapest coal obtained from nearby mines. It contains large quantities of sulphur, which when burnt emits sulphur dioxide (SO2), ethylene, carbon monoxide and fluoride gases and being heavier than air they settle on agriculture lands nearby, creating serious agro-environmental problems. Indian experience has shown that such flue gases affect the crop even four miles away. Some years back we surveyed kilns around Hyderabad and also fruit orchards, vegetable and ornamental crops in their vicinity. The condition of crops was as pathetic, as that of the farmers, whose products had became sick with unknown disease. The general out-look of tree crops was totally sickly.<br />As per present procedures, permission for kiln is given by Deputy Commissioners. Farmers went with their complaint to the Deputy Commissioners who asked Sub-District Magistrates and Assistant Commissioners to probe in to the matter. The latter being non-technical visited the area and reported back that apparently kilns were doing no damage. This has gone on for years. The officers involved do not understand the technology of damage, flue gases containing sulphur were causing.<br /> Concentration of the kilns around big cities is primarily to cut-down the cost of transport of bricks to the city construction sites from shorter distances. Concentration of the kilns within the irrigated agriculture lands is due to easy availability of clay, a raw material used for making bricks. In the irrigated areas there is a hardpan formed at the depth of about 75 cms to one meter and its thickness varies between 45 to 75 cms. One advantage of the burnt bricks form the clay of irrigated area of Sindh is in its final red colour. Clay from Sindh’s Kohistan or hilly tracts impart pale yellow or dull-yellow colour to the burnt bricks, with little eye appeal to the people used to red bricks, though the colour matching to that of lime-stone is also beautiful if properly promoted. <br /> We have done the study of effects of flue gases on mango crop in details and our conclusions are that, the kiln owners get land on contract from some poor farmers at Rs.7000-8000 per acre for removal of clay in a few years. There is chronic shortage of water around Hyderabad and farmers cultivate only 30-50% of land. Being poor they think that they do not lose land and get income which they cannot get even in 10 years, so why not lease. Once clay is removed and contractor is gone, the land owner finds that it costs him Rs.10,000 to re-level the land. Even when it is leveled, it is about 60 cms lower than original level and it becomes difficult to cultivate it. It can also get water logged, flooded easily and become un-economical to cultivate. The land as economic resource is destroyed for-ever. It is not the owner alone, but nation as a whole, who lose the resource. Following are other effects:<br /> <br />In case of mango trees smoke from brick kilns blackens the apex of mango fruit-let, interferes with its development, and has effect on final development of fruits.<br /> <br />The gases and fumes bring this tip disorder in mango and also affect on chlorplast and cause cell disintegration and deficiency of food. <br /> <br />The extent of black tip depends upon the varieties of mango grown. The black it area has decreased amount ascorbic acid. The fruit size remains smaller and is easily detachable from the stalk. The tip becomes pulpy, while the fruit remain unripe and hard.<br /> <br />The brick kiln fumes give girdle necrosis to mango.<br /> <br />The mango tree foliage shows twisting and epinasty. The necrosis brings epidermis stores up in fruits in the form of an unutilized tannin compound.<br /> <br />The higher activity of catalse and peroxide are found in apical ((necrotic) portion and cause necrosis.<br /> <br />Ethylene and Sulphur-dioxide-air mixture produces light brown patches on fruit and these finally turn darker. <br /> <br />Various alkaline substances viz, caustic soda, borax and washing soda are used to control black-tip. They are acidic and are neutralized by alkaline solutions but the solutions are costly and uneconomic under present structure of artificial pricing.<br /> <br />In future, studies are needed to find basic biochemical studies to determine mode of action of pollutants, identifying and development of pollution resistant varieties of mangoes. In the conclusion it may be suggested that:<br />(a) Kilns may be shifted from the irrigated area and area having orchards, whether in the Indus alluvial plains or hilly and desert areas.<br />(b) Agriculture land as an important and permanent resource is being destroyed by removal of clay and thereby lowering the level of land by 66 to 75 cms. Attempt should be made to reclaim it. It would be prone to flooding by occasional floods or neighbourers may drain their surplus water into the readily available depressions and thereby destroying their agro-potential.<br />(c) The affected orchards can readily be brought to productivity by adequate spraying of micro-nutrients and since for the damage responsibility lies on the government, affected farmers may be compensated.<br />(d) Once kilns are located in the hilly area cheap railway transport needs to be reorganized. <br />(e) Problems of other cities may be handled in a suitable manner.<br />(f) With brick kilns gone from irrigated area, stone or concrete will be able to complete with bricks.<br />(g) Farmers as well as kiln owners may be educated about hazards of flue gases.<br />Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br /> Farzanapanhwar@yahoo.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-1308614123088274562007-08-23T02:11:00.002-07:002007-08-23T02:12:17.875-07:00URBANISATION, ENVIRONMENT, EDUCATION, POLLUTION, POLICIES ITS EFFECTS AND ECOLOGICALLY SOUND SOLUTIONS, WHICH WILL BRING SUSTAINABILITY AND DEVELOPMENURBANISATION, ENVIRONMENT, EDUCATION, POLLUTION, POLICIES ITS EFFECTS AND ECOLOGICALLY SOUND SOLUTIONS, WHICH WILL BRING SUSTAINABILITY AND DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN<br /><br />Introduction , <br />During British rule, from (1843-1947), the second half of the nineteenth century. This period experienced significant economic growth under British rule. But after 1947, Pakistan passed through various ups and downs in its economic growth. There are many reasons, first in-stablity in its economic growth and development. One of the reason is running the government under politically selected government, not properly elected and designed polices. But back-bone of all its stagnancy in that its growth in the past was due to agricultural policies of the government and now it is entirely based on the interest of industry. The Federal Government control had fixed the prices of wheat and other food items with aim that too low, labour salaries are calculated according to the price of wheat, food which are heavily suppressed by the government of Pakistan.<br /><br />Year Support price of wheat as <br />compared to 1950 price in <br />percentage Year Support price of wheat as <br />compared to 1950 price in <br />percentage Year Support price of wheat as compared to 1950 price in percentage<br />1950-51 1966-67 53.30 1982-83 65.50<br />1951-52 100.00 1967-68 50.20 1983-84 53.60<br />1952-53 82.20 1968-69 72.50 1984-85 61.90<br />1953-54 73.10 1969-70 69.40 1985-86 55.60<br />1954-55 68.10 1970-71 63.80 1986-87 50.70<br />1955-56 63.90 1971-72 57.90 1987-88 50.20<br />1956-57 60.40 1972-73 53.00 1988-89 42.39<br />1957-58 55.70 1973-74 65.50 1989-90 45.18<br />1958-59 50.60 1974-75 106.50 1990-91 55.66<br />1959-60 54.00 1975-76 94.80 1991-92 49.05<br />1960-61 50.20 1976-77 88.70 1992-93 48.58<br />1961-62 47.20 1977-78 84.50 1993-94 43.68<br />1962-63 43.80 1978-79 79.50 1994-95 42.3<br />1963-64 41.00 1979-80 88.70 1995-96 42.3<br />1964-65 60.20 1980-81 80.90 2004 37<br />1965-66 56.20 1981-82 67.10 <br />This wrong policies effect on environment is explain as under:<br /><br />Agricultural commodity prices. <br /><br />In 1947 agriculture was the dominate sector, contributing 53% of gross domestic products (GDP). In 1987, 40 years after the formation of Pakistan it contributed only 26% of GDP, still providing employment to more than 50% of country’s total labour force. Agriculture and agro-based exports account for 80% of country’s total export earnings. Almost 70% of the country’s population is confided to rural areas.<br /><br />If more than 50% contribute 75% of GDP, the ratio of rural to urban income is 26/50 : 74/50 or 52:1.37 or 1:2.7.<br /><br />This ratio is also confirmed by the wage rates. The farm labour gets Rs.120-1500 (US$20-25) per month, which no other benefits, where as city worker gets minimum of Rs.2800 plus medical benefit (Rs.600-1000) plus leave fare allowance, totalling to Rs.3500-4500. The wage ratio of rural to urban labourer therefore comes i.e., 1:2.85 to 1:3.<br /><br />Wheat, rice and cotton.<br /><br />Most government and institutional efforts has been directed towards major crops (wheat, rice and cotton). Little attention is paid to minor crops are categorised as fruits, vegetables, nuts and industrial crops, which pay the highest returns per acre and some of them, even pay ten times as much, as wheat and rice on the same acreage. <br /><br />Imbalance/disparity in agriculture price structure is the root cause of rural poverty and problems pertaining to law and order. <br /><br />Basmati Rice.<br /><br />Basmati rice grow in Punjab. It is exported and its yield per acre is half that of Sindh rice. Water requirement of Basmati rice is much more. The country thus gains nothing WTO is bound to change this position.<br /><br />Coastal or brackish water fisheries of Sindh. <br /><br />Sindh coast used to get the fresh river water each year and coastal waters were diluted, which became breeding grounds for sea shrimps, lobsters, fresh water shrimps, hilsa or palla fishes and other brackish water fishes. Due to diversion of water form the Indus in the Punjab river discharges some water only for 56 days a year and the coastal waters are not diluted and therefore breeding grounds for these fisheries are destroyed and the catch per boat or per unit has reduced to 10% what it was 20 years ago. Catch now decreases year after year. <br /><br /><br />Forests. <br /><br />The riverine area in Sindh forms 2.112 million acres, out of this 0.6 million acres were under river abandoned or present channels, 0.5 million acres forest land and 1.0 million acres were under agriculture crops raised on preserved moisture and balance 50,000 acres were roads and settlements. Due to diversion of water in the Punjab, the 0.5 million acres under forest have either disappeared or deteriorated to the limit of being abandoned. 1.0 million acres under cultivation, on preserved moisture do not get annual floods and therefore cannot be put under crops. Unfortunately water in about 50% of the riverine area is brackish even within the flood protective embankments and this water cannot be utilised by means of tube-wells for cultivating this land. The balance 0.6 million acres of river channels was under fisheries but river channels now are dry during most of the year and therefore fish cannot be raised. <br /><br />At the delta of the Indus, there were 600,000 acres under mangroves. These were sustained on brackish water formed by mixing of river water with sea water and brought back by tidal action. Most of the mangroves contained trees 60 feet tall and were source of timber, fuel, fruit and also fodder for cattle. Mangroves are now dying out very fast. The total forest area now lost is 1.6 million acres, which is about 12% of area under crops in Sindh.<br /><br />The leaves shed by mangroves were natural food for shrimps, lobsters and cretaceans. Death of mangroves has reduced the catch of fisheries per unit. <br /><br />The forests in general were employing about one person per acre in terms of fuel, timber, fruit, cattle feed and fisheries catch. This has put 1.6 million people of rural Sindh out of employment, during the past 20 years. Same is effect of loss of fisheries each acre of which employed one Sindhi.<br /><br />The 1.0 million acres of agricultural land in the riverine area has gone of cultivation and has displaced 0.6 persons from those areas. <br /><br />The factors and reasons, which are responsible for bringing injustice, desperate, disturb environments, cause mental and physical stress, agitation, crimes, law and order situation in the rural settlements and cities in Pakistan. These are explain as under:<br /><br />(a) Federal government price polices.<br /><br />They fix the agricultural commodities too low, to provide cheap labourer to industries. Thus agricultural commodities are highly subsidised to urban areas. Due to this policy the farmer of Pakistan do not have enough money to use as input on the land, which further deteriorates the situation, by getting low yields next year. The rural communities are compiled into one hand the rural areas having hard time to meet both ends meat and other hand they cannot overcome urban problems. Which are difficult for rural people to handle. <br /><br />b) Injustice in selection of government employees. <br /><br />For a government job at scale 17 or higher. The government rules apply and they advertise the post. The selection are made on the basis of quota, since Punjab province by an area is bigger, its quota is more than other provinces. But up-till now usually on the record people follow government rules and regulations but under-neath it is not true. The government of Punjab get more than 60% quota in jobs, then they manage to bring Punjabis settled on other provinces. This way the Punjab get monopolies in employment. Thus they get majority jobs in Federal Government to make any policies, actions, plans, which is not happily accepted by other provinces. <br /><br />c) Injustice in selection of staff, lower than grade 17 in government jobs.<br /><br />Although according to the government rules jobs of employees less than grade 17, selection is on the basis of quota system, but so far up-till now, no body observes the rules selection of these candidate is done by officer in-charge. Since the Punjab get 60% quota on the basis of population, usually these officer manage to hire lower staff form Punjabis settled in other provinces. This way they cheat and end-result is the monopoly of Punjabis, from lower to higher grade officers, leaving no room for other provinces. This situation brought desperate feeling among other provinces and on other hand developed prejudice against Punjab.<br /><br />d) Selection of Arm forces.<br /><br />This is strictly done on merit basis, without any consideration of quota, but the <br />problems arises due to, the interview for selection is advertised in mostly circulated newspapers. The invariably selection and interview held in urban cities in Pakistan.<br /><br />e) Urbanisation problem due to weak government policies.<br /><br />In Pakistan we have serious urbanisation problems, this is due to government’s weak policies, which have resulted into large scale migration of refugees, rural people to urban areas and this has resulted into severe urbanisation problems, which are very difficult to solve them. <br /><br />The economical sound solutions of the above problems in Pakistan.<br /><br /> The government must strengthens its policies towards immigrants and refugees, which will help to control population in urban areas. <br /> <br /> Government must take strong stand in fixing the prices of wheat, rice and grams according to international price level so as to encourage farmers to increase yields for export. <br /> <br /> Government should also withdraw to subsidise food. This step will bring prosperity in the rural areas. Rural people than will get enough for inputs of seeds fertiliser farm implements, plant protection and improve agricultural production, which provide them enough extra income to increase yield and grow value added corps. This way many more rural people will get employment and this not only reduce the pressure of rural to urban areas but also will help the country to reduce its burden of imports of agricultural commodities and Pakistan will become self-sufficient in this field. <br /> <br /> The government should take strong steps in providing irrigation water according 1991 Water Accord. The government should see that each province gets its proper share, specially the tail-end users or lower companions must get proper share of water. This situation will improve agriculture in the rural areas, which then provide more jobs in agriculture sector boost the country economy. <br /> <br /> For preparation of Dam, channels, ground water resources, diversion of irrigation water, the international law must be followed. This single issue of water can bring political reconciliation because the stability of whole country is based on water. This sensitive issue should be handled according to province’s share. This step is the back bone of bringing the stability, sustainability and Development in Pakistan. <br /> <br /> Government should take immediate step to start development activities for the youth. Right now we do not have specific programmes for youth, their education, development, training, clubs, spots and entertainment programmes. All the country future based on youth. So immediate step is necessary. <br /> <br /> Our education system is only providing degrees, certificates and shields, which is used for getting any job. But our curriculum is not designed according to country’s needs. This way our graduate youths become unfit to be hired in companies, industries and projects due to lack of on-the-job training. This way on one hand we get large number of youths qualified in various disciplines of life, but on the other hand, we have shortage of technical hands to improve our industries. As a results we have large number of educated youth unemployed. They are desperate and get trapped in the hands of political or criminal parities, which pay and hire these educated youth for un-productive and semi-criminal activities. This brings the law and order situation in the country.<br /> <br /> The government immediately help in starting technical training institutes in each provinces, provide them on the small factories, or to purchase agricultural implement, seeds, fertiliser, livestock, nursery plant to improve the situation. This will bring prosperity in the country.<br /> <br /> Government must make the local authorities strong to check development plans should be maintained at all level, and local authorities must maintain law and order situation in the provinces. <br /> All schools in urban areas take students to their rural areas to show harvesting of their fruits vegetable and other crops. Each provinces of Pakistan have a unique climate and produce beautiful fruits, vegetables, flowers crops. The students must understand its geographical location, climate, soil, agricultural produce and its economy.<br /> <br /> At higher education level of technical universities, like doctors, engineers, and other specialists, before awarding degree they must be spend some time in the rural areas. This way when these youths qualify education, they can easily be absorb in the system. This will not only reduce the rural to urban migration, but will help in developing the country.<br /><br />Conclusion. <br /><br />All the above steps as pointed-out not only discuss the problems, but also provide solution of the situation. This can not be achieved unless government, local-authorities and local communities jointly take part in this system. For this purpose government should design an active team which should consist of, local educated senior people. They guide local-authorities for execution of these plans, while local-authorities directly control and funded by the government. These action will provide ecologically sound methods, which will bring sustainability and Development in Pakistan.<br /> <br /><br />Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-41825660904660113742007-08-23T02:11:00.001-07:002007-08-23T02:11:35.844-07:00THE ROLE OF BIO-TECHNOLOGY, IN NUTRITIONAL POINT OF VIEWTHE ROLE OF BIO-TECHNOLOGY, IN NUTRITIONAL POINT OF VIEW<br /><br />Abstract.<br /><br />In 1975-76 the Pakistan total cropping area was 18.02 million hectares, while Sindh a Province of it had 3.71 million hectares under crops. In 1994-95 the country’s total cropping area increased and became 22.14 while Sindh stood at 3.50 million hectares. In 1951 population of the country was 33.17 million while in 1996 population increased up to 131.630 million hectares, this shows that the cropping area did not increase in proportion to the population increase. In 1988 country’s total area under water logging and salinity was 1.495 million hectares and by the year 1993 the area affected by water logging and salinity became 4,923 million hectares. <br /><br />In 1950 when population was less the food was enough for everybody but as population grew, the food became less. At that time country moved towards Green Revolution, which was launched to combat the threat of mass starvation, but soon it brought side, effects, due to use of more irrigation water, which in turn resulted into salinity and water logging. More use of synthetic chemicals also brought pollution in the soil, air and water. The more use of synthetic chemicals resulted into large scale grain production at cost of vegetables and fruits, the vitamin and minerals content of day to day food items continued decline in our daily life. the reason was the use of pesticides, processing techniques like refrigeration, freezing, and during transportation food need waxination and post-harvest treatment. The more consumption of animal protein high cholesterol and over weight problems. <br /><br />In order to full fill the population food demand farmer were compelled to make use of synthetic farm chemicals, which formed a major ingredient of so called green revolution but soon afterwards this also showed its side effects. In order to resolve the problem, scientists have to make use of biotechnology, to help in improving crop production efficiencies, reducing environmental hazards caused by synthetic farm chemicals, and improve the nutritional value of these crops. <br /><br />In order to gain control over this situation, scientists have to start work with the help of genetic engineering in the field of biotechnology and gene technology to utilise this technology for food processing, production, improve food quality, enhance nutritional values of agricultural commodities with better appearance, fruit and vegetables with long shelf life, to cut down the use of additive and preservative in food, make the crops resistance to various infection and diseases, use less fertilisers, less herbicide and fungicide, at the same time use this technology for invention of new vaccine and medicine. <br /><br /><br /><br />Agri-food biotechnology products.<br /><br />Canola rapeseed: Imidazolinone-tolerant canola. Canola rapeseed: Male sterility (MSI), fertility restoration (RFI), glufosinate ammonium herbicide tolerance. Canola: High lauric acid. Canola: Glyphosate tolernt. Canola: Glufosinate tolerant. Corn: Lepidopteran resistant. Corn: Phosphinothricin tolerant. Corn: Male sterile/phosphinothricin tolerant. Oilseed rape: Glufosinate ammonium tolerant canola. Oilseed rape: Round-up herbicide tolerant. Oilseed rape: Herbicide resistant. Potato: Coleopteran resistant. Potato: Colorado potato beetle resistant. Papaya: PRV resistant. Rice: RSV resistant. Rapeseed: Oil profile altered. Soybean: Glyphosate tolerant. Soybean: Round-up herbicide tolerant. Squash: Viral Resistance (WMV2/Coat Protein-ZYMV). Tomato: polygalacuturonase level decreased. Tomato: Fruit ripening altered. Tomato: TMV resistant. Tomato: Fruit polygalacturonase level decreased. Tomato: CMV resistant and Tomato: High pectin. <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />THE ROLE OF BIO-TECHNOLOGY, IN NUTRITIONAL POINT OF VIEW.<br /><br />General.<br /><br />In Pakistan most of women are malnourished. There are many factors involved simultaneously like poverty, unemployment, work load, and availability of healthy food. This extra work needs extra time and extra calories. <br /><br />According to the German specialist Dr. Ploeger the human have in between in the carnivorous and herbivorous. So human have both cutting and chewing teeth and, in herbivorous animal intestine have ratio 20:1 and the carnivorous intestine have ratio 4:1, while human intestines ratio is 12:1. This explains that human food mostly consist of plant origin. In 1950 when population was less the food was enough for every body but when population grew, at that time the food was less and population was more, at that time Scientists moved towards Green Revolution, which was launched to combat the threat of mass starvation, but soon it brings side effect due to more use of irrigation water, which results into salinity and water logging and more use of synthetic chemicals brought population in the soil, air and water. Since the more use of synthetic chemicals results into vitamin and minerals content continue decline in our daily life, the reason was the use of pesticides, processing techniques like refrigeration, freezing, and during transportation food need waxination and post-harvest treatment. The more consumption of animal protein also develop high cholesterol and over weight problems. <br /><br />In order to control this situation Scientists start work with the help of genetic engineering in the field of biotechnology and gene technology to utilise this technology for food processing, production, improved food quality, enhanced nutritional values and agricultural commodities with better appearance, fruit and vegetable with long shelf life, cut down the use of additive and preservative in food, make the crops resistance to various infection and diseases, use less fertilisers, less herbicide and fungicide, at the same time use this technology for invention of new vaccine and medicine. <br /><br />The criteria use for genetically evolved corps are:<br /><br />• Herbicide tolerance.<br />• Disease resistance.<br />• Virus resistance.<br />• Insect resistance.<br />• Quality traits. <br />• Better colour.<br />• Better taste and flavour.<br />• Resistance to stress, drought and salinity.<br /><br /><br />Genetically evolved crops:<br /><br />• Field Crops.<br /> Rice, maize, sorghum, barley, alfalfa, corn, cotton, and wheat.<br /> <br />• Root Crops.<br /> Cassava, yeam, sweet potatoes, sugar beet, ground nut, sugar cane. <br /> <br />• Legumes.<br /> Bean, cow-pea, chickpeas, broccoli, cauliflower, cucumber, pigeon, pea, rapeseed, pea, lettuce, melon, papaya, soybean, and squash.<br /> <br />• Horticulture crops. <br />Banana, apple, kiwifruit, curubits, pineapple, coffee, citrus, sugar cane, cocoa, tobacco, wall nut, tomato and oil seed.<br /> <br />• Ornamentals. <br /> Rose, papaya.<br /> <br />• Tree and Shrubs. <br />Coconut, palm oil and wall nut.<br /><br />Corn.<br /><br />Corn = Resistance to corn borer ( Bt toxin ) , use to control insect, pest, name <br /> Maximitizer.<br /><br />Corn = Resistance to corn borer ( Bt toxin ) , use to control insect pest, name<br /> Nature gard.<br /><br />Corn still under process.<br /><br />Corn = Resistance to herbicide glufosinate, use to control weeds.<br /><br />Corn = Resistance to herbicide glufosinate use to control weed, name Liberty<br /> Link.<br /><br />Corn = Resistance to corn borer ( Bt toxin ) use to control insect pest name<br /> Yield guard.<br /><br />Corn = Show male sterility, use to facilitate plant breeding. <br /><br />Corn = Resistance to corn borer ( Bt toxin ) use to control insect, pest.<br /><br />Rice.<br /><br />The nutritional value in rice is also be re-programmed since it has 5-10% soluble prolamine, while the human digestive system absorbs 70-80% insoluble gluten, so this technology is used to increase protein percentage high, which can easily absorb and transgenic rice will have more nutritional value, drought resistance and salinity tolerance. <br /><br />Maize.<br /><br />Maize genetically modified for tolerance to the European corn borer (ostrinia nubilalis), main insect pest for maize. The genetic modified maize contain bacterial gene, which confers resistance to European corn borer, also contain selectable marker gene for tolerance to herbicide glufosinate ammonium and antibiotic amphicilin. The amphicillin resistance gene has bacterial regulatory sequences and not express in maize. The herbicide resistance gene product was not present in freshly harvested grain from the genetic modified maize. <br /><br />The insecticidal activity was detected in the fresh grain, but disappear after drying, and dehydration of the grain. The bacterial regulatory sequences on the gene could allow the gene to become function if it were transferred from the genetic modified maize to a bacterium, and allow many copy of gene to be generated in a cell, which could lead high level of production of gene product. The chances of such a transfer occurring in very low but infinite. <br /><br />Conclusion.<br /><br />The use of unprocessed maize as an animal feed stuff is unacceptable. <br /><br />Potato.<br /><br />Both coloured and white variety need high level of insecticide, fertiliser, fungicides and nematocide. Genetically evolved potato name is New leaf. As a result potato can be kept for longer time without sprouting. <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Squash.<br /><br />Squash = Resistance to two viruses, use to control two viruses disease name Freedom 11.<br /><br />Squash under process.<br /><br />• Squash = Resistance to 3 viruses. <br />• The new crookneck squash called ZW-20.<br />• The squash have more shelf life, better keeping quality. <br /><br />Soybean under process.<br /><br />Soybean = Resistance to herbicide glufosinate use to control weeds. <br /><br />Brazil nut protein, which is rich in methionine amino acids, this amino acid is essential for human and animal nutrition, is genetically transferred to soybean. It is confirmed by the doctors that transgenic soybean is showing life threatening reaction with those patients show confirmed allergic to brazilian nut. It means that transgenic soybean is not safe to eat. <br /><br />Cocoa.<br /><br />Cocoa harvest need fermentation, allow the aroma precursor to develop in the cotyledon and drying process, helps to reduce water content and remove Acetic acid formed during fermentation. The genetically evolved cocoa have better aroma. <br /><br />Canola.<br /><br />Canola = Altered the oil composition to produce high lauric acid, so increase market<br />value in soap and food production name is Laurical.<br /><br />Canola still under process.<br /><br />Canola = Variety resistance to herbicide glufosinate, which can control weed. <br /><br />Canola = Variety resistance to herbicide gluphosate, which can control the <br /> weed.<br /><br />Canola = Variety which have sterility, facilitate plant breeding. <br /><br />Canola contain genetically modified glufosinate ammonium tolerant oil seed rape. The oil seed used as a source of protein for animal feed industry. The Brassica species normally contain toxic glycosinolate and euric acid. The oil seed rape variety called Topas. The genetically modified oil seed rape plant, can be used in manufacturing process such as production of biodegradable plastics. <br /><br />Alfalfa.<br /><br />Add nif A regulatory gene responsible for transcription activation of the Nitrogen fixation enzyme system, so genetically enhanced strain produced significantly more alfalfa forage than their respective parent strain. <br /><br />Palm oil.<br /><br />Palm oil extract fatty, esters, glycerol used in soap, candly, lubricants, plasticidser for PVC, cosmetics, and palm oil are substitute of cocoa butter. <br /><br />Tomato.<br /><br />• Tomato ( cherry ) = Altered ripening, use to enhance fresh market value. <br /> <br />• Tomato = Delayed ripening, use to enhance fresh market, name Flvr save.<br /> <br />• Tomato = Delayed ripening, use to enhance fresh market value. <br /> <br />• Tomato = Thicker skin, altered pectin, use to enhance processing value. <br /> <br />• Lycopersicon Esculentum. (Modern tomato).<br /> <br />Genetically modified tomatoes with various feature.<br /><br />Lycopersicon Chilense = Drought resistance.<br /><br />Lycopersicon Chmielewskii = Colour intensity, increase sugar content.<br /><br />Lycopersicon Esculenturn <br />Cerasi Fomr = Tolerance of high temperature and humidity<br /><br />Lycopersicon Hirsuturm = High altitude form, resistant to many disease<br />and pests.<br /><br />Lycopersicon Parviflorium = Colour intensity, increased soluble solid.<br /><br /><br /><br />Lycopersicorn Pennellii. = Drought resistnace, increase Vitamin C, and<br />sugar content.<br /><br />Lycopersicon Peruvianum. = Pest resistance, rich source of Vitamin C.<br /><br /><br />Lycopersicon Pimpinellifo- = Wide disease resistnace, lower acidity, <br />llum. Vitamin content.<br /><br />The tomato are genetically modified to improve fruit quality by reducing the level of pectin degrading enzyme present in tomatoes. So the nutritional composition of genetically modified tomatoes become similar to that of conventionally bred counter part with better shelf life. <br /><br />Process food.<br /><br />Sugar and starch is derived from sugar cane maple tree. Sorghum, sugar beets, corn, potatoes, cassava. The gene Thaumatin is a protein weight of some 1600 times more sweeter than sugar is used by North to add in a transgenic crops, which will block the market of sugar and starch derived from sugar can in the South. <br /><br />Sweetener is derived form maize by fructose extracted syrup. This will replace fructose derived from sugar cane. The country which grow sugar cane are Philippine, Madagascar, Negross Island, Bangladesh and Pakistan. <br /><br />Aspartame ( Nutra sweet ) is made from phenyalanine and aspartic acid. The large dose of phenyalnine are toxic to the brain and can cause mental retardation. It may cause headache, depression, mood swings, high blood pressure, insomnia, aspartame also cause birth defect. <br /><br />It is confirm that aspartame when administrated in huge quantities, may contribute to the development of brain tumours. According to the study by leading U.S. Scientist they suggest a link between aspartame sold principally under the brand name Nutrasweet and by using it is 100% rise in brain tumour. It is confirmed that sweetener have link with the brain tumours.<br /><br />Ohmic heat in extension of use.<br /><br />Ohmic heating or direct resistance heating is used for sterilising the range of particular fruit products e.g straw berries and ready made meals. This process could reduce the level of some heat liable vitamins, like Folic acid, thiamine and Vitamin C.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Ohmic heating to particulate fruit products. <br /><br />Ohmic heating or direct resistance heating is a process which sterilises foods, subsequently a sceptically packed. The liquid food or solid food particles are passed through an alternating electric current. The food is pumped between a series of specially designed electrodes of titanium coated with platinum and iridium. The food remain in the ohmic heater for few seconds then pumped through a holding tube for temperature equilibration. The heat sterilised food then cooled and ascetically packed. <br /><br />Irradiation is used for shipment of fresh fruit and vegetable enter from other countries, this radiation resulted into break down of amino acid and after consumption of this food, it may develop cancer. <br /><br />Guarana products. <br /><br />The solid guarana products are used in non beverage formation, and the sale of solid guarana such as powder for sprinkling on food has been discontinued, because caffeine and methyxanthine levels present in guarana to the same level as found in existing dietary items like tea, coffee, colour. <br /><br />Long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids and use in infanct formula.<br /><br />During pre and post natal development. The long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids <br />( LCPFA ) arachidonic acid and decosahexaenoic acid and important role in natural development and visual cortical function. Which is naturally present in the breast milk. The infant formula is lacking these fatty acid and infant body is unable to synthesise long chain poly-unsaturated fatty acid from the parent essential fatty acids, and deficient in archidonic acid and decosahexaenoic acid inter esterification enzyme is used to produce triacylglycerols and will be added in infanct formulae to like a breast milk. This novel fat shows increased absorption of calcium and fat and formulae is same as breast milk.<br /><br />Enzymes.<br /><br />Hemicellulose enzyme used in bread making.<br /><br />Hemicellulose enzyme is used in bread making. This enzyme is derived from Aspergillus niger and Bacillus subtlis, which is genetically modified to increase natural production of the hemicellulose or xtyylanse enzyme. This enzyme had been referred to COT for food safety evaluation. <br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Structured triglycerides composed of mixture of short chain and long chain fatty acid.<br /><br />The genetically modified triglycerides produce few calories than the conventional fat. The novel fat show less effect on blood cholesterol and thrombosis.<br /><br />Enzymatically partially depolymerised polysaccharides.<br /><br />The soluble fibre is used in a wide range of processed liquid and solid foods. These soluble fibres are derived by an action of an enzyme betamannanase, which is obtained from Aspergillus niger on guar gum. <br /><br />Bio-Degradable plastic.<br /><br />The Bacterial al-Caliagenes Eutrophus is used in fermentation process to get plastic. Which is bio-degradeable and not harmful to the environment. <br /><br />Animals.<br /><br />The genetically evolved animals have few and less bones, less fat, growth is much faster than normal, while genetic engineering in poultry, sheep, goat, fish, make them depend upon growth hormones and have vitamin and with the help of antibiotics, such conditions make force them grow, but to eat such meat is not nutritionally healthy for the consumption, since artificial feed consist of vitamin and chemicals as a result the animals are now under high stress, deformed and diseased. <br /><br />Fish.<br /><br />Rainbow trout is genetically engineered and produce transgenic fish. The new fish will produce offspring with same genetic feature, with the help of growth hormones. <br /><br />The Finnish and shell fish are genetically enginered to accelerate growth quickly develop marketable size e.g salmon, oysters by the help of growth hormones. <br /><br />Cow.<br /><br />Cow injection of bovine somatio trophinhormone to produce more milk. This milk develop allergy and miscarriages in pregnancy and such milk develop breast cancer. <br /><br />Suspected poison in milk and dairy products.<br /><br />In recent years the new application of hormones in animal husbandry has brought a lot of change in daily life of humans. The evaluation is based considering beneficial effects but their side effects are ignored. For example rBST a hormone is injected to the animal in order to produce more milk but the continuous administration of hormone has brought, digestive problems, lesions and swelling at the site of injection administration and more than 70% animals are likely contact “mastitis”.<br /><br />These technologies have evolved in the North and were put it in to practice many years a head of South. The same is the case with rBST used in the North and now farmers have confirmed that the spend more money on extra feeding due to rBST hormone, than the returns they gain by selling milk. rBST the administration of this drug is an un-economical venture. The farmer does not realise this until his bankruptcy. <br /><br />A very recent reports from the North mention of many of farmers, who went bankrupt due to the use of rBST to animal herds, and after many years use of rBST this hormone showed side effect including “Out break of mastitis” devastating the herd. The other thing noticed by the farmers is the reduction in milk production due to withdrawal of rBST hormone. This shows cows own hormones were so suppressed that its ability of production of these hormones for production of milk decreased, if they stopped rBST injections. <br /><br />By now the frequency of “mastitis” has increased many folds and treatment requires heavy dose of antibiotic.<br /><br />Scientists have found-out rBST hormone injection increased IGP-1 factor in the blood of Bos group of animals as well as in their milk. IGF-1 is to act as a stimulator and regulator of cell growth in animal as well as in humans.<br /><br />Professor Samuel Epstein of the University of Illinois and the Cancer Prevention Coalition, recent work on IGF-1 shows that it is responsible for breast and gastro-intestinal cancer in humans taking this milk. he mentions that for the breast cancer plasma contains IGF-1 in higher concentration and we administer medicine tamoxifen, main action of which is, to reduce the level of IGF-1, the cause of carcinogensis in humans. <br /><br />Each injection of rBST brings many new spots of mastitis and the farmer must use heavy doses of antibiotics. These antibiotics are reported in heavy concentration in the rBST injected milk. After consumption of such milk, human body become resistant to antibiotic and if humans need cure of any infection, the heavy dose of antibiotics are required for such treatment, which may again become lethal and dangerous for health of human-beings. <br /><br />The Food and Drug Administration in USA, allowed the use of rBST because rBST is a protein and it is found in the milk of treated and non-treated cows. But the synthetic hormone is not yet licensed for use in USA.<br /><br />The North has become, the victim of their own technology like excessive use of rBST. They make their animal sick, bring the high rate of cancer in humans and the farmers go out of business. <br /><br />In the North, the chemical manufacturing companies start various attractive programs for farmers. If a farmer is able to give the names of a few other farmers, who will use rBST for their herd, he will win US$300. Such attraction makes other farmers victims of new technologies. <br /><br />In Pakistan use of rBST has now been introduced. A few weeks back I had gone to the small village in the rural areas and was surprised that rejected technology of the North, has already been adopted in our rural areas and introduction of it was like an epidemic and was also surprised that even the drug store provide one bottle of rBST free, if farmer bags 2 or 3 bottles or even at ½ the price if purchased in bulk, and there farmer come into the trap. I like to request to my own Government, kindly save our country for such environmental pollution and save our farmer from going out of business and would like to request the nation to save our illiterate farmers from such a technology. <br /><br />Chicken.<br /><br />Chicken are fattened by injecting growth hormones. Arsenic is added to the feed of chicken to speed maturation and stimulate egg production, so they produce more eggs the chicken are suffering blindness, lethargy, kidney damages, disturb sexual development, muscle weakness, brain damage, and paralysis. <br /><br />Quinoa.<br /><br />Quinoa for use as both and animal feeding stuff and human food as an alternative to rice, but the biological significance and content of some bitter tasting detergents naturally present in quinoa. The cultivation under U.K condition shows high saponin level in the grains, which need to be removed before grain used as a food and also other anti-nutrients present in quinoa along with saponius. <br /><br />CONCLUSION.<br /><br />The ethical view of genetic modification. <br /><br />• Some people have objection in the movement of gene between plant and animals, but many genes are common in plants and animals, even the unrelated species also get natural gene transfer system. So it is necessary that food evolved genetically must be sold in controlled places, with clear mark and mentioned and label so that the consumer can see it. <br /> <br />• Aspergillus flavus or Aspergillur Parasiticus a Flaxtoxin found in corn, wheat, barley, rice, fig, grain, sorghum, cotton seed, brazil nut are known to cause Hepatitus and liver cancer in human. <br /> <br />• Tryptophan recently kill some hundreds, while few hundreds become critically ill and handicapped. <br /> <br />• rBST in cow milk, develop breast cancer. <br /> <br />• Protect the orgionity of plants, animals and micro-organisms. <br /> <br />• The poultry and meat animal, hormones and growth regulators used to attaining weight in shortest possible time produce meat, which is injurious to health. <br /> <br />• According to Rainer Falk population growth in developing countries according to 1996 Revision, was 1.77 annually compared to more than 2% in 1980’s. Main reason for slow down in population growth is the decreasing fertility. Too much estrogen in male inhibits testes and sperm growth. It means endocrine activity disturb the human reproductivity system. The estrogen balance effect due to the consumption of food produce under environmental pollution. <br /><br />The Solution Lies. <br /><br />To use fresh fruit, vegetables, locally known a seasonal commodities and organic and sustainable method for animal husbandry, because such food confirm by the study are more healthy than genetically method utilised for this purpose, as mentioned by Prof. Dr. Anglika Meir Ploeger. “Alternative in Nutrition do they need Organic Food”.<br /><br />References.<br /><br />• Hammershlag, F.A., and Litz, R.e., 1992, Biotechnology of perennial fruit crops, C.A.B International, Wallingford, UK, 550 p.<br /> <br />• Jackson, M., Ford, B.V., and Parry, M.L., 1992, climatic chavbe and plant genetic resources, C.B.S. Publisher and Distributors (P) Ltd, New Delhi, 190 p.<br /> <br />• Our Toxic Times, Montana, USA, U.S. Organic foods Production Act of 1990 - Right of consumer to know private certifier seals indicates additional quality requirements and higher standards for certification. <br /> <br />• Dixon, P., (Dr.), 1993, The genetic revolution, Kingsway Publication, U.K., 245 p.<br /> <br />• Brouwer, H., Stokhof, E.M., and Bunders, J.F.G., 1992, Biotechnology and Farmers right, V.U. University Press, Netherlands, 122 p.<br /> <br />• Brenner, C., and Komen, J., 1994, International initiation in biotechnology for developing countries agriculture, Promising and Problems, Tech. Paper No.100, OECD, 60 p.<br /> <br />• OECD, France, 1995, Safety consideration for biotechnology, scale up of micro-organisms as bio-fertiliser, 67 p.<br /> <br />• University of Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1996, Biotechnology and development, monitor magazine, No.28.<br /> <br />• The Union of Concerned Scientist, Washington, DC., USA, The gene exchange: A public voice on biotechnology and agriculture. <br /> <br />• European co-ordination, Munchenstein, No patients on life. <br /> <br />• Priorities in biotechnology research for international development. Proceedings of a workshop, Washington DC and Berkely Springs, West Virginia, July 26-30, 1982. Board on Science and Technology for International Development Office of International Affairs, National Academy Press, Washington, DC 1982, 261 p.<br /> <br />• Walgate, R., 1990, Miracle or Menace? Biotechnology and the third world, Panos Publication Ltd, 200 p.<br /> <br />• MAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Genetic Modification and Food, 1995, 16 p.<br /> <br />• Dadd, D.L., 1992, The Nontoxic home and office, Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam Book, Published by G.P. Putname’s Son, New York, 212 p.<br /> <br />• Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Food and Health Department, MAFF, 1995, ACNFP Annual Report 1995, 116 p., UK.<br /> <br />• Simone, C.B., 1992, Cancer and Nutrition (what food to eat, what exercises to do what supplements to take) A ten point plan to reduce your risk of getting cancer, 338 p.<br /> <br />• Angelite Meier-Ploeger (Dr.), Alternatives in Nutrition: do they need organic food, Germany.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-37733381485426764932007-08-23T02:10:00.001-07:002007-08-23T02:10:48.124-07:00THE PRODUCTION OF BARLEY (HORDEUM VULGARE LINN) IN SINDH-PAKISTANTHE PRODUCTION OF BARLEY (HORDEUM VULGARE LINN) IN SINDH-PAKISTAN<br /><br /><br />Abstract<br /><br />In the year 1994-95 the area under Barley production in Pakistan was 165,000 hectares, while in that Sindh was 24,900 hectares. The Barley production in Pakistan was 164,000 tonnes, while in Sindh its production was 12,200 tonnes. In the year 1994-95 the yield per hectare in Sindh was 489 kgs, while its yield per hectare in kgs in Pakistan was 993 kgs.<br />Varieties<br /><br />The varieties or cultivars are grown in Pakistan are Karan-4, Karan-19, Karan-201 and Karan 521 (huskless), Karan-280, Karan-15, Jyoti and K-125 (Hulled). Cytoplasmic male-sterility is not found so far so the production of hybrid variety is not so advanced. <br />Cultivated barley comprise chiefly two species, Hordeum vulgare L., six-rowed, and Hordeum distichon L., tow-rowed barley. The former species are grown more extensively than the latter. Cultivated barley have seven pairs of chromosomes. Two-rowed barley tend to tiller more strongly than the six-rowed type. In barley tillering continue after earing if nitrate and moisture supply are adequate. <br />The commercial varieties of barley may divided into three types according to their reaction to day-length and temperature. These are winter barley (low temperature requirements), spring barley and intermediate winter barley<br />Barley is used extensively in the study of linkage relations, including resistance to certain diseases, as mentioned by Robertson, Wiebe and Shands (1955) cultivated barley is divided into three classes based on the character of growth; winter, intermediate and spring. <br /><br />Introduction<br /><br />• Seeds rates used is 30-35Ib/acre.<br />• It need cool winter. <br />• Barley has the ability to grow under a wide range of agro-climatic conditions. <br />• Barley is more productive under adverse conditions. <br />• It mature earlier than wheat.<br /><br />Soil<br /><br />• Soil moisture stress during the period between pollination and grain maturation causes a reduction in average kernel weight.<br />• It can tolerate alkalinity. <br />• It needs well drained and moderately rich loam soil. <br />• Well drained soil, medium loam of fair fertility, even texture is most suitable for its cultivation.<br /><br />Planting<br /><br />• Plant rows are spaced nine inches a part. <br />• Seeds are sown either by broad casting, or by single tube drill operated in shallow furrows behind a plough. <br />• Depth of sowing is 6-8 cm.<br />• Alkaline land prepared, planked and left un-disturb for about a week before sowing, so that the salt moves from lower soil layers to the upper soil zone and root zone becomes relatively free from salts. <br />• Its sowing time is from middle of October to the middle of November. <br />• Barley begin to germinate at 2°C but optimum temperature for germination are 15-20°C, while at 16-17°C the vegetative growth start.<br />• Hybrids tend to germinate faster and to head earlier than the parent varieties. However drought stress before maturity appears to be more serious in the hybrids than in the parent varieties.<br />• Certain varieties have purple stem, due to presence of anthocyanin pigment.<br />• Barley is grown pure or mixed with other Rabi crop such as wheat, gram, peas and lentil. Some time rape and mustard, and linseed also grown mixed with barley. <br />• It needs slightly loose seed-bed.<br /><br />Fertilisers<br /><br />• Super-phosphate, help to neutralise deterious effects. <br />• Ammonium sulphate is used as a source of nitrogen by increase of nitrogen fertiliser the protein content of the grain will increase and reduce its malting value. Increase protein content for feed barley is beneficial. <br />• 12 kgs of N+8 kgs of P2O5 + 8 kgs K2O are needed per acre.<br />• Phosphate produces a higher percentage of plump kernels and high malt extract. <br />• It needs 2-3 kgs of nitrogen per acre at time of sowing and germination.<br /><br />Rotation<br /><br />• It can give rotation with crops like bajra, maize, paddy, jowar, cotton, ground nut.<br />• Barley can be crop rotationed with bajra.<br />• Barley is grown either by itself or mixed with wheat, gram, peas, lentils, mustard and linseed.<br />• It is frequently grown with an alternate of wheat. Barley is harvested from 15th March to 1st April in Sindh and is followed by crop of sorghum and cotton.<br /><br />Irrigation<br /><br />• Minimum water requirements of winter barley are around 400-500mm in crop growing period losts about 5 months<br />• It needs 4-5 irrigations. The heavy or frequent irrigations increases the average weight and kernel size. .<br />• Water stress effects grains maturation in three ways: <br /> Reduction in the rate of grain growth. <br /> Early cessation of growth bring early grain maturity.<br /> Loss due to respiration after assimilation. <br />• If moisture stress occurs in early stages of grain development, resulting in thin and shrivelled grain. <br />• Barley is more salt tolerant cereals and very susceptible to water logging. <br /><br />Weed control<br /><br />• Hand-weeding and hoeing is used. <br /><br />Harvesting<br /><br />• Barley are harvested when straw turn brown. <br />• Harvesting is done by uprooted plant and cut with siekle. Threshing is done by machines. <br /><br />Pests and diseases<br /><br />• The attack of diseases and pest on barley is less as compare to rice and maize. <br /><br />Insects<br /><br />• Aphids.<br />• Chinch-bug.<br />• Hessian Fly.<br />• Grass hopper. <br />• Winter Barley<br />• Winter barley are more susceptible to winter killing. <br />• Rains at the time of harvesting causing discolouration of the grain, make them un-fit for malting.<br />• In order to store it is fully dried, the storage room is fumigated before storage to protect the grain from fungal and pests attacks.<br /><br />Diseases Incited by Fungi<br /><br />• Dwarf or Brown Rust of Barley:<br /> Pathogen: Puccinia hordei Otth; Syn. P. anomal Roster; Puccinia Simplex (Koern) <br /> Eriks and Henn.<br />• Stripe Disease of Barley<br /> Pathogen: Helminthosporium gramineum Rabh.<br />• Covered smut of barley<br /> Pathogen: Ustilage hordei (Pers) Langerheim.<br />• Powdery mildew of Barley<br /> Pathogen: Erysiphe graminis DC. Var. hordei Marchal.<br />• Downy mildew (Slerospora macrospora Sacc).<br />• Powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis).<br />• The Fungus Erysiphe graminis).<br />• Ergot (claviceps purpurea).<br />• Spot blotch (Helmin thosporium sativum).<br />• Rhychosporium scald, (Rhynchosporium secalis).<br />• Anthracnose (collectotrichum gramini colum).<br />• Sepotoria leaf blotch (Septoria passerinii Sacc).<br />• Black or Semiloose Smut, Ustilago avenae.<br />• Covered Smut (Ustilago hardei [Pers] Lagerh.<br />• Stripe Rust (Puccinia glumarum [Schm]).<br /><br />Minor diseases of barley<br /><br />• Neck blothc: Helminthosporium teres sacc.<br />• Root rot and foot rot Helminthosporium sativum and cochliobolus sativus.<br />• Sclerotial rot: Pellicularia rolfsii (curzi) west.<br />Leaf stripe: Helminthosprium gramineum Rabh<br /><br />Virus diseases of Barley<br /><br />• Barley yellow dwarf.<br />• Barley mosaic.<br /><br />Both viruses are sap and aphid transmitted.<br /><br />Non-parasitic diseases<br /><br />• Virus diseases.<br />• Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas translucens).<br />• Pythium Root rot (Pythium spp).<br /><br />Uses<br /><br />• It is also used to make industrial alcohol and vinegar.<br />• Malt syrup is used for making candies, breakfast cereals, medicines and in textie industry. Malt sprouts and by-products of brewing are used as a feed for dairy cattle. The grains are used for the manufacturing pearl and powder products, which generally form the diet of sick people. Surplus grain provides feed for cattle and horses, straw is also fed to cattle.<br />• Its used for preparation of beer and whisky.<br />• The protein content varies from 7.5 - 15% of dry weight of grain and 50-60% starch content of the dry weight.<br />• For effective feeding the grain has to be rolled or ground after steaming; if fed whole, much of it remain undigested. <br />• For malting fully matured, medium size, plump, mellow grains free from cuts and blemishes and possessing a bright golden-yellow colour, with 100% visibility with nitrogen content of 1.2 - 1.4% on dry weight basis are suitable. <br />• It is eaten as pure flour or mixed with that of wheat or gram.<br /><br /><br />References<br /><br />1) Agricultural statistics of Pakistan 1994-95, Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock Economic Wing, Islamabad.<br /> <br />2) Handbook of Agriculture; Facts and figures for farmers, students and all interested in farming; Indian Council of Agricultural Research new Delhi; 1987; 1303 p. <br /> <br />3) Handbook of Agriculture; Fact and figure for farmer, students and all engaged or interested in Farming; Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi; 1961; 761 p<br /> <br />4) Crop Production in dry regions by I. Arnon; Volume 2; National Book Foundation of Pakistan; 1972; 683 p.<br /> <br />5) Dickson; Diseases of field crop; second edition; McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc; 1956; 517 p. <br /> <br />6) Handling and storage of food grains in tropical and sub-tropical areas; by D.W. Hall; Food and Agriculture organisation of the UN, Rome 1970; 350 p. <br /> <br />7) Mahabal Ram; High yielding varieties of crops; Second edition; 1986; 708 p.<br /> <br />8) Pandey; A Text book of Plant Pathology; Pathogen and Plant Diseases; S. Chand and Company Ltd; New Delhi, 1992; 532 p. <br /> <br />9) Rangaswami; Diseases of crop plants in India; Third edition; 1988; 498 p.<br /> <br />10) Simon McKirdy and Roger Jones; Barley yellow Dwarf virus in cereals; Department of Agriculture, Western Australia; Farm note No.19/93.<br /><br />Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br /> Farzanapanhwar@yahoo.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-17269682480062131312007-08-23T02:09:00.002-07:002007-08-23T02:10:11.596-07:00THE NEXT GENERATION FARMERS IN SINDH-PAKISTANTHE NEXT GENERATION FARMERS IN SINDH-PAKISTAN<br /><br />The province of Sindh in Pakistan lying between 23°40’ and 28°30’N and 66°40’ and 71°10’E has subtropical climate, having 100-550 chill units and 3700-4500 heat units. The Pakistan economy depend upon agriculture. At the time of independence in 1947, agriculture was the dominating sector contributing 53% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In 1987, forty years after the formation of Pakistan, it contributed only 26% of GDP, still providing employment of more than 50% of country’s total labour force. Agriculture and agro-based exports account for 80% of country’s total export earnings. Almost 70% of country’s population is confined to rural areas. Based on agriculture. <br /><br />In Sindh 14.0 million acres are under crops. Due to green revolution and over use of synthetic chemicals like, fertilisers, insecticide, pesticide, fungicides and weedicides, our soil, air environment and underground water is polluted. While with the time the cultivated land is reduced due to water logging, salinity, drought and shortage of water, all the crops are badly effected by over-exhaustion of soil, pollution in the environment, drought, water logging and salinity. So we get only 1/3rd of total production compared to developed countries. Our population increased many fold in the past fifty years as a result per person is less than 0.5 acres. It cannot keep people employed. As a result the new generation is completed to go and work in the cities and abandon the ancestral profession of farming. <br /><br />As the time passes the old agricultural process, practices are not feasible with new hybrid or genetically evolved crops, integrated pest management, old cultural practices to enhance the soil ability needed which more man power. The old traditions are diminishing. The new generation is no more interested or dependent upon the climatic variations. So they want secured jobs in the cities. <br /><br />In Pakistan Agriculture Commodities rate are fixed as compared to the price of wheat. The Government artificially creates poverty in the rural areas by fixing wheat price too low so the urban industries gets cheap labour. The low price wheat as fixed by the government is the root cause of poverty. As a consequence of low prices farmers have no money to spent on inputs and this results into low yield. The farmer are burdened with more and more loan and at the end are compelled to sell the land. This situation in the rural areas of Sindh force the farmer to sent their children to the cities, as a labourers and are not able to send them schools for education. This way the family tradition and culture of farming is never passed to the next generation, it is lost forever.<br /><br />In Sindh Agriculture Departments and Agriculture Extension are very weak. Because these department selections is not done on merit, instead they are appointed by favouritism. As a result of that farmer training projects in Sindh are non-existent. <br /><br />In Sindh the farmers do not get enough money to make both hands meet and are not able to provide a education to children and instead in young age they are sent to the cities as labourers to reduce family burden. When these children absorb in cities they feel insulted to tell others that their families to farming communities. Due to absence of labours in the rural areas farmers enters to tanents and share croppers, who always cheat and in some of the time they illegally occupied the land and do many mischievous things including kidnapping.Many land owners are compel to sell land to and wash their hand off from ancestor business. <br /><br />Conclusion.<br /><br />Unless government change its price policies, this situation is difficult to revert. At the same time government should hire in agriculture department and Agriculture Extension staff on merit and they must visit the farmers to provide them guidance. Production loans should be provided on easily access basis. The law and order situation in the rural areas should be improved. The solution lies that government should allow private industries, universities, firms, and coaching institutes to come forward, control and improve agricultural sector in the rural areas of Sindh Pakistan. <br /><br />Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br /> Farzanapanhwar@yahoo.com <br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-90307930095374401162007-08-23T02:09:00.001-07:002007-08-23T02:09:31.861-07:00THE IMPACT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY ON PAKISTAN AGRICULTURETHE IMPACT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY ON PAKISTAN AGRICULTURE<br /><br />Mrs. Farzana Panhwar<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410<br /><br />In 1997 Pakistan population was 137.8 millions out of which 65% population lived in the rural areas. The literacy rate in 1981 for rural areas in 10 years was 22.6%, urban area was 35.8% in rural area was 64.2% while for female illiteracy rate was 75.1% in urban area 51.9% in rural areas was 87.9%. In rural areas the main profession of the people is agriculture or its related fields. The Biotechnology at micro level will completely eliminate the small poor farmers from their jobs and at the same time this will also effect on rural indigenous communities working with hand operated tools. It will also indirectly affect the Government and general public. <br /><br />If we see at Macro-level this technology will bring the following changes:<br /><br />• Changes in demographic forces.<br />• Changes in economic forces.<br />• Changes in natural forces.<br />• Changes in technological forces.<br />• Changes in political forces.<br />• Changes in cultural forces.<br /><br />In rural areas where literacy rate is only 66%, these people do farming by using indigenous knowledge and life long practical experience. Biotechnology in the beginning will increase the gap between rich and poor because only rich farmers will be able to purchase seeds, while the poor farmers do not have money to purchase copy right seeds and even if he takes loan to purchase in one year, he will not be able to invest next year. The same gap will increase between the small and large farmers the small farmers will very soon be pushed out but middle and large farmers may be able to use biotechnology and use these specially designed crops with special features, but they would need specially trained staff and proper management which are beyond the control of most farmers of Pakistan and even the rich. When crop will be ready to harvest and market these advanced technologies make it difficult even for a middle class farmers because the profit depend upon the quality and under GATT and WTO only the big highly enterprising farmers will survive, the small and middle farmers will go out from this business. Under GATT and WTO agreements other countries can also bring the food from their countries having it in excess and supply to cheap enough that it would become uneconomical to buy seed, pay royalties, engage highly technical and advanced management staff in Pakistan. Land Reforms in Pakistan have limited land holdings, which are too small for biotechnological economics and management. This way the whole farming business will ends into hands of big corporations which will run agriculture on new lines in Pakistan eliminating the world farmer. <br /><br />Biotechnology also destroy the indigenous cultural practices and alternative farming practices which are close to the nature and environment friendly, like permaculture, organic and sustainable agriculture. <br /><br />When these rural farmers goes out from their business, they can not be absorbed as urban labour due to already glut, over population and urban environment. This will change the society’s structure. <br /><br />At Macro-level not only farming community will be effected but at the same time pharmaceutical, fertiliser industries will be effect directly and secondary effect will be on research, training and educational institutions, to provide new kind of education and training to make biotechnology effect. It will be difficult for Pakistan to cope up with such training and education as at present they are no trained scientists in universities or research and extension departments. Like tissue culture, mechanised harvesting, computer based post-harvesting equipment, sprinkler, trickle irrigation, new kind of weed killing machines and training required not only to run them but also to assemble and repair them. This will change the technical force, since most of machinery need to imported it will change economic forces. This system will break the old rural family tradition that only one person in family earns and remaining 5-6 members of the family share his earning. In new technology every one needs to work and earn, then only they will be able to survive. The controlled by World organisations like WTO and GATT means acceptance international laws and policies, which would change the political situation in Pakistan. Since Pakistan does have to germplasm and raw materials which will be utilised by scientists abroad and if Pakistan persists to get a copy rights, the natural forces in Pakistan will also get change. <br /><br />At macro level this technology will widen the gap between the Developed and Developing countries. Because Pakistan is lacking technical know how, we have to import this technology. We have to import not only the equipment but also trained staff, and newly created big corporations will hire labour forces from the country, which is cheap but numbers employed will be too small. This way Pakistan’s will be ruined specially the farmers and at the same times all other related business will also be affected. <br /><br />The biotechnology in agriculture will show direct and indirect effects while biotechnology in medicine, mineral, fuel energy, bio-fertiliser and animal husbandry will also produce similar situation. <br /><br /><br />The advance technologies are appreciation and these are necessity of life but this will bring the gap between rich and poor and also more widening the gap between the North and South and then Drawn’s laws of Survival of the fittest will repeat. Who so ever is absorbed in the system, will survive and remaining will perish. I am a farmer and see that the worst time will come but this process on a small scale has already started in Pakistan and no one can guess its exact shape in future. <br /><br /><br />Corresponding author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-56886125078229961312007-08-23T02:08:00.001-07:002007-08-23T02:08:58.109-07:00THE BIOLOGY OF MANGO (MANGIFERA INDICA) FLOWERS IN SINDH-PAKISTANTHE BIOLOGY OF MANGO (MANGIFERA INDICA) FLOWERS IN SINDH-PAKISTAN<br /><br />Abstract.<br /><br />Mango (mangifera indica) belong to Anacardiceae family. Other members of same family are cashew, pistachio, Ambrella or spondioscyheres (South East Asia), Banno or mangifera verticillata (South East Asia), Hog plum (spondias mombin) from tropical Central America, Jamacian plum (Spondias purpurca) and kumini (mengifera curdera). Mango cultivars in Pakistan are: Anwar Ratol, Bengan Pali, Chausa, Dashehari, Lanngra, Siroli, Sindhri, Suvarnareka, and Zafran.<br /><br />In the year 1994-95 the area under mango production production was 88,300 hectares, while in that Sindh was 38,700 hectares. The mango production in Pakistan was 833,700 tonnes, while in Sindh its production was 285,300 tonnes. <br /><br />Polyembryyonic and monoembryonic mango are two distinct types they are separated on the basis of reproduction and their respective centres of diversity: the first from South East Asia and the second from India. The first is tropical and the seocnd sub-tropical.<br /><br />Mango is a tropical and sub-tropical tree, it can reach up to the height of 30-90 feet. Its leaves are oblong-lanceolate to elliptical, 6-16 inches long, variable in breadth, glabrous deep green, the margin undulate, apex acute, petiole 1-4 inch long swollen at the base. Tree is ever green.<br /><br />In Hyderabad Sindh (25°-36’N) and 68°-30’E flowering takes place from 10th January to 1st March for various cultivars. Shoot containing 35 leaves, when ringed below the 20th leaf from terminal and terminal bud removed, inflorescence will initiate form the most distal lateral buds. This show that auxin causing inflorescence comes form leaves. Time of ringing for Sindh varieties harvested in June and early July is about end of August after the first vegetative flush is over. <br /><br />50% of fruit if thinned does not affect number of fruits at harvest, but size is increased and thereby the yield. There is no fruit set in heavy type of panicles of the varieties of Dashehari, Chausa and Langra. Mature tree can attain 30 m height and can survive more than 100 years.<br /><br />Mango having vigorous tap root and abundant surface feeder roots. <br /><br />The Mendelian genetics to crop breeding, optimisation of agronomic and horticulture field practices and successful management of insect, pest and diseases planting of regular bearing cultivars, more suitable field practices including irrigation management, control of flowering, fertilisation and use of agri-chemicals help in increasing the mango production in many folds. <br /><br />Fruit is fleshy drupe, containing edible mesocarp of varying thickness. It is resinous the cultivars are different in shape, size and colour. Fruit colour at maturity is genotype-dependent. The excarpis thick and glandular. The mesocarp can be fibrous or fibre-free with various flavours. The endocarp is woody, thick and fibrous.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />The biology of mango (mangifera indica) flowers in Sindh-Pakistan.<br /><br />Introduction.<br /><br />Monoembryonic cultivars are affected by environment conditions which inhibit zygotic embryo development or cause it degeneration, while polyembryonic cultivars can develop fruit even in the absence of zygotic embryo because of presence of nucellar embryos. In case of monoembryonic cultivars around 99% perfect flowers and young fruits drop. This could be due to nutrition deficiency in embroys development, degeneration of embryo or its embryo sac, ethylene production with high peroxidase activity with high rate of fruit abscission, while in polyembryonic cultivars show low peroxidase activity.<br /><br />Mango inflorescence.<br /><br />The mango inflorescence is borne on terminal pyramidal panicle which is glabours or pubescent, are foot are more in length. There are 1000-2000 flowers per panicle each 5-7 mm diameter and only 0.1 to 0.5% may mature to fruit. The inflorescence is rigid and erect is widely branched with densely flowered. Before panicle reach in to its full length flowers start to open. The flowers are small, monoecious and polygamous. Both male and perfect flowers are found within single inflorescence. The pistil abort male flowers. It can be controlled by spray of Ethephon at 400-600 ppm + surfactant at full bloom spray or by control of harmonic deficiency removed by 2-4-D at 25 ppm once or NAA at 25 ppm thrice or planofix or chlorofiinoxi accetic acid at 25 ppm spray thrice reduce fruit drop at mustard, pea and marble stage. When pendicle is of short length (as Langra) its fruit does not fall. Flowers occurs on the same panicle, sepals ovate-oblong, concave, petals twice as long as the sepals ovate, 3-5 ridged, the ridges orange, disk fleshy, five-lobed, stamins 1-fertile, 4 reduced to staminodes of various prominence, ovary glabrous. <br /><br />There are 4-5 petals that are oblong to avoid to lanceolate and also thinly pubescent. The floral disc is 4-5 lobed fleshy and large, located above the base of the petals. There are 5 large fleshy nectaries that form 5-lobed receptacle. There are 4-5 stamens. In which 1-2 are fertile the remaing are sterile staminodes that are surrounded by small gland. The 2-3 smaller filments arise from the lobes of the nectaries. The stamens are central. Flowers are cross-pollinated by flies and insects. <br /><br />The pollen grain are tricolpate almost the same size. Fruit a drupe 2-6 inches or more in length, usually compressed laterally greenish, yellowish or reddish in colour, the epicarp forms the skin, mesocarp is fleshy and endocarp is bony forming shell of stone. <br /><br />Mangoes produce panicle usually 10-60 cm long with 1000-6000 flowers, polygamous, with male, female and hermaphrodite flower on the same panicle. <br /><br />Maximum flowers open around 9-10 am stigma is receptive before flowers open and remain active about 72 hours after anthesis. Various flies, insects and thrips help in pollination. In mango 27/20°C reduces night respiration and stimulates flowering. For mango 30 days chill is maximum but some flower in 4 chilly days. Night temperature around 10-12°C and dry conditions promote flowering. Flowers reach full blooms within 25-30 days after initiation. The number of perfect flowers rage 1.25 to 81.0%. Late season and those inside the canopy are perfect flowers. Percentage of perfect flowers is higher in the apical rather than central or basal zone of flower panicle. Late flowers have 11.8% of perfect flowers as compared to 6% in early flowers. Highest fruit set is on late emerging panicles.<br /><br />The photoperiodism and thermoperidosim play important role in controlling the flowers. Time of flower bud differentiation in mango, coincides with beginning of short days in Ocotber/November in Sindh. Pruning to open-up canopy facilities better light penetration, increases flowers and yields. Low temperature of 10-15°C promote growth check and enhance flower initiation but low temperature of 5°C can result into totally male flower inflorescence.<br /><br />Flowering date is more closely related to degree hours below 18°C, than to the date of last vegetative flush. The flower bud differentiation depend upon the ‘On’ and ‘Off’ year phase of tree rather than the original and cessation of growth of shoots. The shoot that were de-blossomed, defruited and tipped, gave very poor flowering in the following ‘off’ year.<br /><br />Flower buds are generally barne on terminal buds of shoots is absolutely essential. Contrary to common belief our observation shows that cultivar Sindhri flushes four times a year. The non fruit bearing shoots flush in April and subsequent flushes occur in July to October. The next season flowering in maximum in April flush, followed by August flush. If flush occur in October it produces least flowers July and September flushes are intermediate. In Langra and Dasehri mango only 3-35% flowers are pollinated due to lack of pollinators. Pollination depend upon many factors like: weather, wind, rain, pollen tube growth, temperatures below 16°C which inhibit pollen tube germination and cultivar and many varieties are self-incompatible. <br /><br />The factors which effect on flowering are: soil and air temperature, relative humidity, saturation deficiency, dew point, continentally, temperature variability after bud swelling, quality and quantity of sun-light, optimum combination of climatic factors, soil moisture, and other unknown environmental factors, which govern, the time extent of flowering. <br /><br />Climatic factors affect the flowering and cropping pattern of crops in two ways: Frost, high temperature, with low humidity and hail storm, either damage the fruit buds, blossoms and fruits directly or create conditions (cloudy weather and rain during flowering) which affect the fruit set. Mango growth ceases at 12°C and ripening date is connected with heat-sum as well as level of moisture in the soil.<br /><br /><br /><br />Environment for flowering.<br /><br />These are as under:<br /><br />a) Water stress or chill stress: Water stress used an alternative to winter chilling can easily be achieved in dry winter areas by stopping irrigation in autumn and early winter, prior to flowering. Prolonged rainfall before and during blossoming can reduce fruit set. <br />b) Stopping irrigation: Stoping irrigation proceeding flowering for 2-3 months help to induce heavy bloom, but with-holding irrigation causes severe fruit drop from mustard size to maturation.<br />c) Ringing and girdling: Girdling response to flowering depends on width of cut, narrow cuts heal in short term and produce no response, whereas wider cuts can kill tree by starvation, if they do not heal in time. Girdling has increased flowering and upto 10 fruits per cluster can be produced. <br /><br />Effect of low temperature during flowering.<br /><br />Low temperature of minus 0.5 to 1.5°C (29-31°F) or lower can cause damage to flower or growth flush. Flowers are more tender can be damaged, even above freezing temperatures up to above 4.5°C or (40°F). Baganpali flowers are damaged even at 10°C. At mean temperature of 18.3°C (65°F) or below, mangoes do not show any growth and flowering may be delayed. If after flowering average temperature remains like 18.3°C (65°F) or in range where growth rate is low, the fruit will mature proportionately late. This occurs about twice in every 10 years in Sindh and harvest is delayed by about fortnight.<br /><br />The early flush of panicles which emerges under colder conditions show low percentage of perfect flowers and high incidence of malformation in comparison to late-emerged panicles which experience warmer environment during the period of development. The malformed panicles usually consist of unopened buds which are usually males.<br /><br />The correlation studies indicate that there is positive correlation between the presence of sear and floral malformation. <br /><br />Mango flowering as influenced by foliar feeding of urea at 4% plus NAA, 120 ppm induced early flowering and reduced flowering duration. Growth regulators cycloheximide ethephon, dermen etc., cause abscission of apical panicles and thereby release darmant buds, but these will produce inflorescence when weather is cool, other-wise will produce vegetative growth.<br /><br />Physical methods of flower induction are:<br /><br />• Water stress.<br />• Low temperature.<br />• Atmospheric stress, high vapour pressure.<br />• Stem or trunk girdling.<br /><br />With use of deltamethrin there is increased fruit set as compared with other methods. Decis-D contains dimethoate which will reduce pollinator population.<br /><br />Regulation of flower initiation by photoperiod.<br /><br />Plants are classified as short day, long day or day neutral in term of their flowering response to photoperiod. Mango are day neutral plant, meaning that they are not induced to flower by either long or short photoperiods.<br /><br />Growth and Development.<br /><br />The flowering process has been investigated based on two physiological theories - the plant nutrition theory (C-N) and theory based on the production of specific flowering hormones by leaves. When the percentage of hermaphrodite flowers below a certain minimum level (below 4%), the productivity of mango is affected. Trees of particular variety have higher age, contain more percentage of hermaphrodite flowers per panicle than trees of lower age. <br /><br />The methods of flower induction.<br /><br />These methods are:<br /><br />• Shading, reduces flowering by delaying flower bud initiation. Reducing shading will induce flowering.<br /> <br />• Shoot decapitation can induce flowering in alternating varieties. Timing has to be 6-8 weeks before actual flowering. Probably 15th - 31st December for late flowering, 15th - 30th November for the early and 1st - 15th December for mid season varieties, can give good results. <br /> <br />• Exposing roots can induce flowering, but the consequences of this stress are not known. Cutting down 12-19mm roots some meters from trunk, about 6 weeks before anticipated date of flowering, can tigger flowering. <br /> <br />• Girdling can increase flowering to clusters. Time for girdling to reduce flowering is end August in Sindh after new flush has matured. <br /> <br />• Early emerging panicles produce male flowers. Removal of them by dormex at 0.5% or other chemicals before 10th January can increase yield 5-10 times, but the climate has to be cool right up to second flush, which may be adverse to heavy flowering and yield may be less.<br /><br />Polyembryony.<br /><br />Single zygotic embryo found in monoembryonic mangoes while one or more embryos which are usually but not always zygotes in polyembryonic cultivars. Adventitious embryos develop from the nucellus, a maternal tissue surrounding the embryo sac. Adventitious embryos can also originate by direct budding from the cotyledons and hypocotyls of other nucellar embryos. If progenies of monoembryonic mango hybridized with polyembryonic cultivars show that monoembrony is a dominant trait. The number of adventitious embryos is influenced by many factors like environmental factors, nutrition, and weather conditions during flowering and fruit set. Zygotic seedlings is different than the nucellar seedling as ‘off-type’ in nursery.<br /><br />Seeds and polyembryony.<br /><br />The mango seed is large and flat, ovoid oblong surrounded by fibrous endocarp at maturity. The testa is thin and papery. The seed are not labyrinthine. Certain polyembryonic cultivars can produce seeds with adventitious nucellar embryo only. Mango seeds are considered to be recalcitrant, and can not survive for more than few days or weeks in storage at ambient temperature. <br /><br />In Sindh 25-30% fruit falls down in the month of May and this June is caused by changes in connecting walls between layers of cells in fruit stem or also abscission layer. These changes are controlled by hormones, which are controlled by other factors.<br /><br />Mango malformation.<br /><br />In mango the malformation are two types - vegetative and floral. The floral make the tree unproductive. The malformed panicles show:<br /><br />(a) Suppression of apical dominance.<br />(b) Only production of male flowers.<br />(c) Presence of inhibitors.<br />(d) High temperature response.<br /><br />NAA is used to increase perfect flower, improve fruiting in malformed panicles. Deblossoming treatment at bud burst improve fruit set. It means the tree can with flower single spray of NAA (200 ppm) during October, followed by deblossoming treatment at bud burst stage during December and January. This way yield of mango tree increases by 5-20 times compare to the untreated tree.<br /><br />The malformation considered physiological viral, carological and fungal but the etiology is still not understood. Due to presence of unknown substance, malformed panicles mostly produce male flowers. <br /><br />Mango malformation has to be shown to be sap transmitted indicating the involvement of a virus as a causal agent of the disease. <br /><br />Conclusion.<br /><br />Much research is required to completely understand the biology of mango (mangifera indica) flowers, its environmental, biological and genetic influence on flower and improve these situations with the help of genetic engineering and biotechhnology, which bring high yielding crops and better returns to the farmers. <br />Aauthor: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2579055659546368985.post-79495800765444959172007-08-23T02:07:00.002-07:002007-08-23T02:08:08.793-07:00SYZYGIUM CUMINI (L.) AS AN AGRO-FORESTRY PLANT IN SINDH-PAKISTANSYZYGIUM CUMINI (L.) AS AN AGRO-FORESTRY PLANT IN SINDH-PAKISTAN<br /><br />Abstract<br /><br />In Sindh the share of forestry in value added of agriculture sector for the year 1994-95 was 1.10%. At Panhwar Fruit Farm, which is located between 23°40’ to 28°38’N and 66°40’ to 71°30’E. The region have sub-tropical climate receive 100-550 chill units and 3700-4500 heat units. Having soil pH 8.5, soil is silty loam, annual rainfall 175mm.<br /><br />We grow syzygium cumini along with rose (Floribundas) which is used for fragrance and fresh flower market. Jamon belongs to the family Myrtaceae, in which 400-500 species are present but only few provide edible fruit. <br /><br />Syzyguim species are as under:<br /><br />Syzygium aqueum (Burm) Alston.<br />Syzygium grande (Wight) Walp.<br />Syzygium Jambos (L) Alston.<br />Syzygium malaccense (L) Merrill & L.M. Perry.<br />Syzygium pycananthum - Merrill & L.M. Perry.<br />Syzygium Samarangense (Blume) Merril & L.M. Perry.<br />Syzygium cummunii Syneugenia Jambolana.<br />Syzygium Jambos (Rose apple or Sufed Jamon).<br />Syzygium fruitecosum.<br />Syzygium Javanica (water apple).<br />Syzygium Uniflora (Surinam cherry pitanga cherry).<br />Syzygium Zylanica.<br /><br />Our yeild is 3 tonnes/acre. Its wood is resemble with Teak wood and an excellent for furniture. Tree used as wind break. It also act as a satisfactory fuel.<br /><br />There is large diversity is found in seedling. So we have to conserve germplasm for breeding. We have made selection for heavy fruit bearing and dwarf trees. In Future superior varieties gained by marcotting, inarching, grafting, budding and cleft grafting will be come common. Budding can be done by patch or shield method. The clonial tree yield is the same but tree become dwarf.<br />Syzygium Cumini (L.) as an Agro-forestry Plant in Sindh-Pakistan<br /><br />Introduction<br /><br />Various names of Syzygium cumininii.<br /><br />These names are Jamblan-plum; Java plum; pamam plum; Baluw Jantje; Jambo longue; Jame longue; Jamelonier; Tetenegresse; Jambolanabaum; Kummelmgrte; Jamelao; Jambolan,; Jambolanum; Myrtus cumminii; Black plum; Dubat; and Jambolan.<br /><br />The Syzygium Cumini not only found in Pakistan, but is also found in India, Sri-Lanka, Africa, Israel, Thailand, Philippines, West Indies, Malaysia, Australia, tropics and sub-tropics. Jamon is rapidly growing tree and reaches up to 10-20 meters high. It having chromosome number 2n=40> it also<br />has varieties: Ra Jamun; Farenda; Kathe jamun; Paras Tree is ever green. The leaves have very small petiole.<br /><br />Growth and Development<br /><br />After sowing seed it germinates within 15 days. In 7-8th year it start flowering. At Panhwar Fruit Farm we used grafted or budded trees and we get flowers with 3-4 years. The Jamon tree remains productive upto the age of 30-35 years. <br /><br />Propagation<br /><br />It can be done from seed, cuttings, grafting and budding and cuttings. If propagated through seeds, these are planted in the month of July-to-August. The planting distance we used is 10-12 cm.<br /><br />The cuttings is 20-25 cm and these are dipped in to 2000 ppm IBA solution. For air-laying 500 ppm IBA in lanolin past in used. This way success is 60%. The inarching propagation is not done commercially. Budding, shield, patch are successful in early May to June. <br /><br />Soil<br /><br />In Sindh soil is silty loam, but it is also grown in all types of soils. It can also stand salinity and water-logging condition. <br /><br />Irrigation<br /><br />It requires 8-10 light irrigation during early age of plant growth. Some people stop water from February to March causing stress and getting more flowers. Our experience is that if, we stop water, heavy fruiting is heavy but and tree does not becomes shy bearer in the next year and alternating habit sets in.<br /><br />Fertiliser<br /><br />We supply 50-60 kg FYM/plant/year during bearing stage. Actual nitrogen requirement per tree is about 400-500 grams with equal dose of potash and phosphate.<br /><br /><br />Pruning and Training<br /><br />It needs high temperature for proper maturation of fruit. Tree does not need any pruning or training. Fruit and flower drop can be reduced by two GA3 sprays at 60 ppm. About 20-50% of the seeds are polyembryonics. In order to get proper fruit we use root-pruning, although other in places girdling is equally successful.<br /><br /><br />Fruit<br /><br />It fruits are good source of mineral, and protein, and it provide 277 KJ/100g energy. In Sindh full blooms comes around 10th March and harvest around 15-30th June. Fruit colour is light purple to black violet. The edible flesh inside the fruit is crisp, succulent, slightly aromatic.<br /><br />Harvesting<br /><br />All the fruits do not ripen simultaneously and therefore harvest season is about 2 weeks. Harvesting is done daily in the morning and fruit sent to the market the same day as its keeping quality at ambient temperature is poor. Since the ripening fruit falls to the ground it crushed and destroyed so harvesting is done by trained staff twice a day.<br /><br />Yield<br /><br />The yield of well established tree is 3-4 maunds or 120-160 kgs per tree but the average for a mature seedling tree is 80-100 kgs and for budded trees 60-70 kgs. Jamon with with rose plants as inter crop shades the letter, but enormous organic matter seedlings etc., provide fertilizing value to roses, so their yield is more than normal. Although older trees shade lower part of the canopy and reduce flowering and fruit set. <br /><br />Post-harvest<br /><br />It can be stored 2-3 days under ambient temperature. It can be store at 9±1°C and RH 85-90% for 3 weeks if pre-cooled. <br /><br />Pest and Diseases<br /><br />• White fly (Dialeurodes eugenia) produces wormy appearance on fruit, it can be control by digging soil around the tree to kill maggots and pupae.<br /> <br />• Leaf eating caterpillars (Carea subtilis). It is cured by the spray of 0.1% Malathion.<br /> <br />• Anthracnose (Glomerella Cingulata). Fruits show water soaked circular and depressed lesions and shrivel and rot. It can be controlled by Boreaux mixture at 0.5:0.5:100 litres.<br /> <br />• Fruit fly is controlled by Laures sprays.<br /> <br />• 100 grams fruit supply 77 calories and is a good source of potassium, carbohydrates and minerals. <br /><br />Uses<br /><br />Fruit is eaten fresh but also be processed into beverages, jelly, jam, squash, wine, vinegar and pickles. Jambolan wine is produce commercially in the Philippines. Seeds powder is used for treating diabetics, dysentery, diarrhoea and other ailments. <br /><br />Twigs are used as firewood, leaves are used as fodder. Tree act as a wind break. The Jambolan wood resemble with Teak wood and excellent for furniture making. It also acts as satisfactory fuel. Its wood is also used for railway sleeper being strong and tolerant to insect and fungal attack. Wood is used for beams, rafters, posts bridges, boat, masts, cart wheel and foundation frames as it resists action of water. <br /><br /><br />Conclusion<br /><br />We have to consider Jamon as an Agroforestry Industry and conserve its germplasm for evolving better varieties suiting to local conditions with good fruit post-harvest life, and <br />better quality of wood production.<br /><br />References<br /><br />1) Bose, T.K., and Mitra, S.K., Fruits: Tropical and Subtropical; Naya Prokash; 1990; 838 p.<br /> <br />2) Chundawat B.S, Arid Fruit Culture; Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., Pvt, Ltd, 1990; 208 p.<br /> <br />3) Ginai Muhammad Asghar, A Treatise on Horticulture; Bureau of Agriculture Information, Department of Agriculture, Government of West Pakistan, Lahore, 1968, 538 p.<br /> <br />4) Julia F. Morton; Fruits of warm climate; Creative Resource Systems, Inc., 1987; 505 p.<br /> <br />5) Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, Economic Wing, Government of Pakistan, Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan 1994-95, Islamabad.<br /> <br />6) Santapau, H. Dr., Common Trees, National Book Trust, |India; 1981; 118 p.<br /> <br />7) Singh, V.B., Fruits of Ne Region; Wiley Eastern Limited, 1990, 194 p.<br />8) Singh, S.P., Fruit crops for Wasteland; Scientific Publishers, 1992; 227 p.<br /> <br />9) Tankard Glenn; Tropical Fruits, An Australian Guide to Growing and Using Exotic Fruits; Viking O’Neil, 1990; 152 p.<br /> <br />10) Verheiji and Coronel, R.E., (Editors), Plant Resources of South-East Asia, No.2; Edible Fruits and Nuts, Pudoc Wageningen 1991; 446 p.<br /><br /><br />Author: Farzana Panhwar (Mrs) <br />Address: 157-C, Unit No.2, Latifabad, Hyderabad <br /> (Sindh), Pakistan.<br />E-mail: farzanapanhwar@hotmail.com<br /> Farzanapanhwar@yahoo.com<br />Fax: 92-21-5830826 and 92-221-860410Farzana Panhwarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17676401571983118858noreply@blogger.com1